Material science by william calister, Thesis of Structures and Materials

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F I F T H E D I T I O N

Fundamentals of Materials

Science and Engineering

An Interactive

e

- Te x t

William D. Callister, Jr.

Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Singapore Toronto

DEDICATED TO THE M EMORY OF

D AVID A. S TEVENSON

M Y ADVISOR, A C OLLEAGUE,

AND FRIEND AT STANFORD U NIVERSITY

Preface

Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering is an alternate version of my text, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, Fifth Edition. The contents of both are the same, but the order of presentation differs and Fundamen- tals utilizes newer technologies to enhance teaching and learning. With regard to the order of presentation, there are two common approaches to teaching materials science and engineering—one that I call the ‘‘traditional’’ approach, the other which most refer to as the ‘‘integrated’’ approach. With the traditional approach, structures/characteristics/properties of metals are presented first, followed by an analogous discussion of ceramic materials and polymers. Intro- duction, Fifth Edition is organized in this manner, which is preferred by many materials science and engineering instructors. With the integrated approach, one particular structure, characteristic, or property for all three material types is pre- sented before moving on to the discussion of another structure/characteristic/prop- erty. This is the order of presentation in Fundamentals. Probably the most common criticism of college textbooks is that they are too long. With most popular texts, the number of pages often increases with each new edition. This leads instructors and students to complain that it is impossible to cover all the topics in the text in a single term. After struggling with this concern (trying to decide what to delete without limiting the value of the text), we decided to divide the text into two components. The first is a set of ‘‘core’’ topics—sections of the text that are most commonly covered in an introductory materials course, and second, ‘‘supplementary’’ topics—sections of the text covered less frequently. Fur- thermore, we chose to provide only the core topics in print, but the entire text (both core and supplementary topics) is available on the CD-ROM that is included with the print component of Fundamentals. Decisions as to which topics to include in print and which to include only on the CD-ROM were based on the results of a recent survey of instructors and confirmed in developmental reviews. The result is a printed text of approximately 525 pages and an Interactive eText on the CD- ROM, which consists of, in addition to the complete text, a wealth of additional resources including interactive software modules, as discussed below. The text on the CD-ROM with all its various links is navigated using Adobe Acrobat. These links within the Interactive eText include the following: (1) from the Table of Contents to selected eText sections; (2) from the index to selected topics within the eText; (3) from reference to a figure, table, or equation in one section to the actual figure/table/equation in another section (all figures can be enlarged and printed); (4) from end-of-chapter Important Terms and Concepts to their definitions within the chapter; (5) from in-text boldfaced terms to their corresponding glossary definitions/explanations; (6) from in-text references to the corresponding appendices; (7) from some end-of-chapter problems to their answers; (8) from some answers to their solutions; (9) from software icons to the correspond- ing interactive modules; and (10) from the opening splash screen to the supporting web site.

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Preface ● ix

materials science and engineering are descriptive in nature. Thus, questions have also been included that require written, descriptive answers; having to provide a written answer helps the student to better comprehend the associated concept. The questions are of two types: with one type, the student needs only to restate in his/ her own words an explanation provided in the text material; other questions require the student to reason through and/or synthesize before coming to a conclusion or solution. The same engineering design instructional components found in Introduction, Fifth Edition are incorporated in Fundamentals. Many of these are in Chapter 20, ‘‘Materials Selection and Design Considerations,’’ that is on the CD-ROM. This chapter includes five different case studies (a cantilever beam, an automobile valve spring, the artificial hip, the thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle, and packaging for integrated circuits) relative to the materials employed and the ratio- nale behind their use. In addition, a number of design-type (i.e., open-ended) questions/problems are found at the end of this chapter. Other important materials selection/design features are Appendix B, ‘‘Proper- ties of Selected Engineering Materials,’’ and Appendix C, ‘‘Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials.’’ The former contains values of eleven properties (e.g., density, strength, electrical resistivity, etc.) for a set of approxi- mately one hundred materials. Appendix C contains prices for this same set of materials. The materials selection database on the CD-ROM is comprised of these data.

SUPPORTING WEB SITE

The web site that supports Fundamentals can be found at www.wiley.com/ college/callister. It contains student and instructor’s resources which consist of a more extensive set of learning objectives for all chapters, an index of learning styles (an electronic questionnaire that accesses preferences on ways to learn), a glossary (identical to the one in the text), and links to other web resources. Also included with the Instructor’s Resources are suggested classroom demonstrations and lab experiments. Visit the web site often for new resources that we will make available to help teachers teach and students learn materials science and engineering.

INSTRUCTORS’ RESOURCES

Resources are available on another CD-ROM specifically for instructors who have adopted Fundamentals. These include the following: 1) detailed solutions of all end-of-chapter questions and problems; 2) a list (with brief descriptions) of possible classroom demonstrations and laboratory experiments that portray phe- nomena and/or illustrate principles that are discussed in the book (also found on the web site); references are also provided that give more detailed accounts of these demonstrations; and 3) suggested course syllabi for several engineering disciplines. Also available for instructors who have adopted Fundamentals as well as Intro- duction, Fifth Edition is an online assessment program entitled eGrade. It is a browser-based program that contains a large bank of materials science/engineering problems/questions and their solutions. Each instructor has the ability to construct homework assignments, quizzes, and tests that will be automatically scored, re- corded in a gradebook, and calculated into the class statistics. These self-scoring problems/questions can also be made available to students for independent study or pre-class review. Students work online and receive immediate grading and feedback.

Tutorial and Mastery modes provide the student with hints integrated within each problem/question or a tailored study session that recognizes the student’s demon- strated learning needs. For more information, visit www.wiley.com/college/egrade.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation is expressed to those who have reviewed and/or made contribu- tions to this alternate version of my text. I am especially indebted to the following individuals: Carl Wood of Utah State University, Rishikesh K. Bharadwaj of Systran Federal Corporation, Martin Searcy of the Agilent Technologies, John H. Weaver of The University of Minnesota, John B. Hudson of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Alan Wolfenden of Texas A & M University, and T. W. Coyle of the University of Toronto. I am also indebted to Wayne Anderson, Sponsoring Editor, to Monique Calello, Senior Production Editor, Justin Nisbet, Electronic Publishing Analyst at Wiley, and Lilian N. Brady, my proofreader, for their assistance and guidance in developing and producing this work. In addition, I thank Professor Saskia Duyvesteyn, Depart- ment of Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, for generating the e-Grade bank of questions/problems/solutions. Since I undertook the task of writing my first text on this subject in the early 1980’s, instructors and students, too numerous to mention, have shared their input and contributions on how to make this work more effective as a teaching and learning tool. To all those who have helped, I express my sincere thanks! Last, but certainly not least, the continual encouragement and support of my family and friends is deeply and sincerely appreciated. W ILLIAM D. C ALLISTER, J R. Salt Lake City, Utah August 2000

x ● Preface

Contents ● xiii

M ECHANICAL B EHAVIOR —M ETALS 160 7.6 Tensile Properties 160 7.7 True Stress and Strain 167 7.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation 170 7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 170 M ECHANICAL B EHAVIOR —C ERAMICS 171 7.10 Flexural Strength 171 7.11 Elastic Behavior 173 7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics (CD-ROM) S-

M ECHANICAL B EHAVIOR —P OLYMERS 173 7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 173 7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 175

• 7.15 Viscoelasticity (CD-ROM) S-

H ARDNESS AND O THER M ECHANICAL P ROPERTY C ONSIDERATIONS 176 7.16 Hardness 176 7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 181 7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 181 P ROPERTY V ARIABILITY AND D ESIGN /S AFETY F ACTORS 183 7.19 Variability of Material Properties 183

• Computation of Average and Standard Deviation Values (CD-ROM) S- 7.20 Design/Safety Factors 183 Summary 185 Important Terms and Concepts 186 References 186 Questions and Problems 187

8. Deformation and Strengthening

Mechanisms 197

Learning Objectives 198 8.1 Introduction 198 D EFORMATION M ECHANISMS FOR M ETALS 198 8.2 Historical 198 8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 199 8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 201 8.5 Slip Systems 203

• 8.6 Slip in Single Crystals (CD-ROM) S- 8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 204 8.8 Deformation by Twinning (CD-ROM) S-

M ECHANISMS OF S TRENGTHENING IN M ETALS 206 8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 206 8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 208 8.11 Strain Hardening 210 RECOVERY , RECRYSTALLIZATION , AND G RAIN GROWTH 213 8.12 Recovery 213 8.13 Recrystallization 213 8.14 Grain Growth 218 D EFORMATION M ECHANISMS FOR C ERAMIC M ATERIALS 219 8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 220 8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 220 M ECHANISMS OF D EFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF P OLYMERS 221 8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 221 8.18a Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers [Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-

8.18b Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers (Concise Version) 223 8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 224 Summary 227 Important Terms and Concepts 228 References 228 Questions and Problems 228

9. Failure 234

Learning Objectives 235 9.1 Introduction 235 FRACTURE 235 9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 235 9.3 Ductile Fracture 236

• Fractographic Studies (CD-ROM) S- 9.4 Brittle Fracture 238 9.5a Principles of Fracture Mechanics [Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-

9.5b Principles of Fracture Mechanics (Concise Version) 238 9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 248

• Static Fatigue (CD-ROM) S- 9.7 Fracture of Polymers 249 9.8 Impact Fracture Testing 250

Contents ● xv

12.12 The Temperature Variation of

• Fireclay, Silica, Basic, and Special

Chapters 14 through 21 discuss just supplementary topics, and are

found only on the CD-ROM (and not in print)

xviii ● Contents

B.8 Specific Heat 462 B.9 Electrical Resistivity 464 B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 467

Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs

for Selected Engineering Materials 469

Appendix D Mer Structures for

Common Polymers 475

Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting

Temperatures for Common Polymeric

Materials 479

Glossary 480

Answers to Selected Problems 495

Index 501

List of Symbols

T he number of the section in which a symbol is introduced or explained is given in parentheses.

xix

A  area A˚^  angstrom unit A (^) i  atomic weight of element i (2.2) APF  atomic packing factor (3.4) %RA  ductility, in percent reduction in area (7.6) a  lattice parameter: unit cell x -axial length (3.4) a  crack length of a surface crack (9.5a, 9.5b) at%  atom percent (5.6) B  magnetic flux density (induction) (18.2) B (^) r  magnetic remanence (18.7) BCC  body-centered cubic crystal structure (3.4) b  lattice parameter: unit cell y -axial length (3.11) b  Burgers vector (5.7) C  capacitance (12.17) C (^) i  concentration (composition) of component i in wt% (5.6) C  i  concentration (composition) of component i in at% (5.6)

Cv , C (^) p  heat capacity at constant volume, pressure (17.2) CPR  corrosion penetration rate (16.3) CVN  Charpy V-notch (9.8) %CW  percent cold work (8.11) c  lattice parameter: unit cell z -axial length (3.11) c  velocity of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum (19.2) D  diffusion coefficient (6.3)

D  dielectric displacement (12.18) d  diameter d  average grain diameter (8.9) d (^) hkl  interplanar spacing for planes of Miller indices h , k , and l (3.19) E  energy (2.5) E  modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (7.3) E  electric field intensity (12.3) E (^) f  Fermi energy (12.5) Eg  band gap energy (12.6) E (^) r ( t )  relaxation modulus (7.15) %EL  ductility, in percent elongation (7.6) e  electric charge per electron (12.7) e ^  electron (16.2) erf  Gaussian error function (6.4) exp  e , the base for natural logarithms F  force, interatomic or mechanical (2.5, 7.2) F  Faraday constant (16.2) FCC  face-centered cubic crystal structure (3.4) G  shear modulus (7.3) H  magnetic field strength (18.2) H (^) c  magnetic coercivity (18.7) HB  Brinell hardness (7.16) HCP  hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (3.4) HK  Knoop hardness (7.16) HRB, HRF  Rockwell hardness: B and F scales (7.16)

List of Symbols ● xxi

x  length x  space coordinate Y  dimensionless parameter or function in fracture toughness expression (9.5a, 9.5b) y  space coordinate z  space coordinate   lattice parameter: unit cell y–z interaxial angle (3.11)

, ,   phase designations

 l  linear coefficient of thermal expansion (17.3)   lattice parameter: unit cell x–z interaxial angle (3.11)   lattice parameter: unit cell x–y interaxial angle (3.11)   shear strain (7.2)   finite change in a parameter the symbol of which it precedes   engineering strain (7.2)   dielectric permittivity (12.17)  r  dielectric constant or relative permittivity (12.17) 

s ^ steady-state creep rate (9.16)  T  true strain (7.7)   viscosity (8.16)   overvoltage (16.4)   Bragg diffraction angle (3.19) D  Debye temperature (17.2)  wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (3.19)   magnetic permeability (18.2) B  Bohr magneton (18.2)  r  relative magnetic permeability (18.2)  e  electron mobility (12.7)  h  hole mobility (12.10)  Poisson’s ratio (7.5)  frequency of electromagnetic radiation (19.2)  density (3.5)  electrical resistivity (12.2)

t ^ radius of curvature at the tip of a crack (9.5a, 9.5b)  engineering stress, tensile or compressive (7.2)  electrical conductivity (12.3)

•  longitudinal strength (composite) (15.5) c ^ critical stress for crack propagation (9.5a, 9.5b) fs ^ flexural strength (7.10) m ^ maximum stress (9.5a, 9.5b) m ^ mean stress (9.9)  m  stress in matrix at composite failure (15.5) T ^ true stress (7.7) w ^ safe or working stress (7.20) y ^ yield strength (7.6)  shear stress (7.2) c ^ fiber–matrix bond strength/ matrix shear yield strength (15.4) crss ^ critical resolved shear stress (8.6)  m  magnetic susceptibility (18.2)

SUBSCRIPTS c  composite cd  discontinuous fibrous composite cl  longitudinal direction (aligned fibrous composite) ct  transverse direction (aligned fibrous composite) f  final f  at fracture f  fiber i  instantaneous m  matrix m , max  maximum min  minimum 0  original 0  at equilibrium 0  in a vacuum

C h a p t e r 1 / Introduction

A familiar item that is fabricated from three different material types is the beverage container. Beverages are marketed in aluminum (metal) cans (top), glass (ceramic) bot- tles (center), and plastic (polymer) bottles (bottom). (Permission to use these photo- graphs was granted by the Coca-Cola Company.)