microbiome/ clean note/ exam prep, Study notes of Biology

Clear and structured elaborations for tests on the human microbiome. Includes key concepts, definitions, and explanations useful for exam preparation in biology or health-related studies.

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2025/2026

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BIOCHEMISTRY โ€“ COMPLETE
STUDY FILE
---
## 1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the branch of science that studies the **chemical substances and
processes occurring in living organisms**.
### Importance of Biochemistry
* Helps understand metabolism
* Basis of medicine and biotechnology
* Explains diseases at molecular level
* Used in genetics, pharmacology, nutrition
---
## 2. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
### 2.1 Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made of **C, H, O** with the general formula **(CHโ‚‚O)n**
#### Classification
1. **Monosaccharides** โ€“ Glucose, Fructose
2. **Disaccharides** โ€“ Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
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BIOCHEMISTRY โ€“ COMPLETE

STUDY FILE

## 1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry is the branch of science that studies the chemical substances and processes occurring in living organisms.

Importance of Biochemistry

  • Helps understand metabolism
  • Basis of medicine and biotechnology
  • Explains diseases at molecular level
  • Used in genetics, pharmacology, nutrition

2. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

2.1 Carbohydrates

Organic compounds made of C, H, O with the general formula (CHโ‚‚O)n

Classification

  1. Monosaccharides โ€“ Glucose, Fructose
  2. Disaccharides โ€“ Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
  1. Polysaccharides โ€“ Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose

Functions

  • Energy source
  • Structural role
  • Storage of energy Shortcut (Disaccharides): ๐Ÿ‘‰ SLaM S โ€“ Sucrose La โ€“ Lactose M โ€“ Maltose

2.2 Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Levels of Protein Structure

  1. Primary โ€“ Amino acid sequence
  2. Secondary โ€“ ฮฑ-helix, ฮฒ-pleated sheet
  3. Tertiary โ€“ 3D folding
  4. Quaternary โ€“ Multiple polypeptides Shortcut (Levels): ๐Ÿ‘‰ PSTQ โ€“ Please Study Till Qualification

P โ€“ Protection

2.4 Nucleic Acids

  • **DNA โ€“ Genetic material
  • **RNA โ€“ Protein synthesis

Types of RNA

  • mRNA โ€“ Messenger
  • tRNA โ€“ Transfer
  • rRNA โ€“ Ribosomal Shortcut: ๐Ÿ‘‰ Mr.T (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)

3. ENZYMES

Definition

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions.

Characteristics

  • Protein in nature
  • Highly specific
  • Not consumed in reaction

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

  • Temperature
  • pH
  • Substrate concentration
  • Enzyme concentration Optimum pH examples
  • Pepsin โ€“ Acidic
  • Trypsin โ€“ Alkaline Shortcut (Factors): ๐Ÿ‘‰ TPSE T โ€“ Temperature P โ€“ pH S โ€“ Substrate E โ€“ Enzyme

4. METABOLISM

Types

  1. Anabolism โ€“ Building up reactions
  2. Catabolism โ€“ Breaking down reactions

4.2 Lipid Metabolism

  • ฮฒ-oxidation breaks fatty acids
  • Occurs in mitochondria
  • Produces Acetyl-CoA

4.3 Protein Metabolism

  • Deamination
  • Transamination
  • Urea cycle Urea Cycle Location: ๐Ÿ‘‰ Liver

5. VITAMINS

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

  • A, D, E, K Shortcut: ๐Ÿ‘‰ ADEK

Water-Soluble Vitamins

  • B-complex
  • Vitamin C

Deficiency Diseases

  • Vitamin A โ€“ Night blindness
  • Vitamin D โ€“ Rickets
  • Vitamin C โ€“ Scurvy

6. HORMONES

Types

  • Peptide hormones โ€“ Insulin
  • Steroid hormones โ€“ Estrogen
  • Amino acid derivatives โ€“ Thyroxine Insulin function: ๐Ÿ‘‰ Lowers blood glucose

7. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Very Short Questions

Q1. What is peptide bond?

8. EXAM SHORTCUT PAGE (Quick Revision)

  • Glycolysis โ†’ Cytoplasm
  • Krebs โ†’ Mitochondria
  • DNA โ†’ Nucleus
  • Enzymes โ†’ Proteins
  • Insulin โ†’ Lowers glucose
  • Urea cycle โ†’ Liver