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Neuropsychology WGU D
Ontogenetic explanation Describes how behavior develops, examining differences between males and females at different ages. Evolutionary explanation Explains structure/behavior based on evolutionary history, examining behavioral similarities among related species. Functional explanation Explains why a structure/behavior evolved as it did, such as why certain traits were favored by natural selection. Genetic drift Gene spread by accident due to a dominant male with many offspring spreading the gene, both positive and negative. Ethical issues of research with laboratory animals Many mechanisms of behaviors are similar across species, making it easier to study non- humans. Neurons Cells that receive information and transmit it to other cells Motor neuron receives excitation through dendrites and conducts impulse along axon to muscle. Sensory neuron Very sensitive at one end to particular stimuli. Soma/Cell body Contains nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and is covered with synapse receptors.
Intrinsic neuron Axons and dendrites are confinterm-18ed within a structure. Glia Type of cell that doesn't conduct impulses over long distances. Monism Idea that the universe consists of one type of being; different ways of describing the same thing. Dualism Idea that mind and body are different kinds of substance that exist independently. Perception Occurs in the brain; for example, something touching the hand sends a message to the brain. Physiological explanation Relates behavior to activity of brain/organs, such as chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence the brain. Astrocytes Star-shaped glial cells that synchronize the activity of axons by wrap around dendrites Tripartite synapse Tip of axon releases chemicals causing nearby astrocytes to release their own chemicals, modulating the message to the next neuron. Microglia Part of the immune system that removes viruses and fungi from the brain. Oligodendrocytes Cells in the brain and CNS that alter/build myelin sheaths.
Blood-brain barrier Protects the brain by keeping out most viruses & bacteria and harmful chemicals while allowing certain substances like oxygen and glucose to pass. Glucose Main chemical necessary for the brain's nutrition. Thiamine Necessary for metabolizing glucose; deficiency leads to death of neurons & Korsakoff's syndrome (memory impairments). Sodium-potassium pump Uses active transport to pump 3 sodium out and 2 potassium in of cell. Resting potential Difference in electrical change between outside & inside of neuron, maintained by a polarized membrane. Action potential A neural impulse that occurs when the membrane reaches a threshold, resulting in depolarization. All-or-none law States that amplitude & velocity of action potential are independent of the stimulus that initiated it. Hyperpolarization Increased polarization across the membrane. Depolarization Reduction of polarization across the membrane. Voltage-gated channels Channels that open in response to changes in membrane potential, allowing ions to flow in or out.
Threshold The level of depolarization that must be reached to trigger an action potential. Sodium (NA+) Ion that flows into the neuron during depolarization. Potassium (K+) Ion that flows out of the neuron during repolarization. Vagus nerve Stimulated by bacteria in the intestines, connecting contents of intestines to the brain. Inflammatory chemicals Produced by bacteria under stressful conditions, affecting mood & motivation. Active transport Protein mediated process that expends energy to move substances like glucose and amino acids into the brain. Ketones Alternative energy source for the brain. Lactate Another alternative energy source for the brain. Action Potential Defined as transmission of action potential down axon Refractory Period Important to stop membrane from being permanently depolarized Absolute Refractory Period Membrane cannot produce action potential Relative Refractory Period Needs stronger stim to produce
Reuptake The NT molecules may be taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling Ionotropic Receptors Distinguish between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors and explain how each of them works. Metabotropic Receptors Distinguish between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors and explain how each of them works. Inotropic Synaptic effect that depends on opening of gate in membrane. Metabotropic Sequence of metabolic reactions that produce slow, long-lasting effect. Hallucinogenic Attach to serotonin receptors and enhance connection in areas of brain that don't normally communicate. Opiate Attaches to endorphin receptors. Stimulant Inhibit transporters for dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, decreasing reuptake. Cannabinoids Cause negative feedback from post neuron/cell, releasing chem to pre neuron to stop NT release. Dorsal Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. Ventral Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side.
Anterior Toward the front end. Posterior Toward the rear end. Superior Above another part. Inferior Below another part. Lateral Toward the side, away from the midline. Medial Toward the midline, away from the side. Proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment. Distal Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment. Ipsilateral On the same side of the body (e.g., two parts on the left or two on the right). Contralateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right). Coronal plane (or frontal plane) A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front. Sagittal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side.
Substantia nigra Dopamine pathway for readiness of movement Forebrain Receives sensory info, controls muscles (contralateral side) through spinal axons & cranial nerve nuclei Cerebral cortex Outer part of the brain Amygdala Evaluating emotional info (fear mainly) Thalamus Main input to cortex (sensory info) Hypothalamus Control of eating, drinking, temp, reproduction - conveys to pituitary gland Basal Ganglia Includes caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus - involved in movement, motivational/emotional behavior, learning of skills/habits Nucleus basalis Input from hypothalamus & basal ganglia, sends axons that release acetylcholine to cerebral cortex, involved in arousal, wakefulness, attention Hippocampus Memory (individual events), where you are & where going Laminae Layers of cell bodies that are parallel to surface of cerebral cortex & separated from each other by layers of fibers Lamina IV Receives sensory input
Lamina V Involved with motor output Columns of cortex Cells of cortex organized into columns of cells perpendicular to laminae Occipital lobe Posterior end of cortex, primary visual cortex Parietal lobe Primary somatosensory cortex (receives sensation from touch/muscle-stretch/joint receptors) Temporal Lobe Processes auditory info, left side for speech Temporoparietal junction Area where parietal lobe & temporal lobe meet Frontal lobe Includes primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex Prefrontal cortex Involved in working memory, cognitive control, emotion Binding problem Question of how various brain areas produce a perception of a single object, requires identifying location of an object & perceiving all aspects of stimulus as being simultaneous Effects of brain damage Study victims with different brain damage, lesion (controlled damage in lab animals), ablation (remove brain area), gene knockout (affects wherever gene active), transcranial magnetic stimulation (intense application temporarily inactivates brain area)
Lens Adjustable structure that focuses light onto the retina. Cornea Non-adjustable structure that helps focus light onto the retina. Retina Rear surface of the eye lined with visual receptors. Bipolar cells Cells that transmit visual information from the retina to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells Cells that send visual information to the brain via their axons through the optic nerve. Blind spot Area at the back of the retina with no receptors where the optic nerve exits. Path of light through the eye Light passes from receptors to bipolar and horizontal cells, then to amacrine and ganglion cells, and then to the optic nerve. Rods Receptors that detect brightness of light. Cones Receptors that useful in bright light & perceive color Trichromatic theory Theory that perceives color through relative rates of response by three types of cones. Opponent-processing theory Theory that perceives color in terms of opposites. Color constancy Ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting.
Retinex theory Theory that the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine brightness and color. Optic nerve Axons of ganglion cells that carry visual information from the retina to the brain. Optic chiasm Point where optic nerves from both eyes meet before going to the brain. Lateral geniculate nucleus Part of the thalamus that receives most visual information from the optic nerve Primary visual cortex (V1) Area in the occipital cortex responsible for processing visual information. Lateral inhibition (LI) Reduced activity in a neuron due to activity in neighboring neurons. Receptive field (RF) Area in visual space which light excites or inhibits a cell. Parvocellular cells Ganglion cells with small bodies and small receptive fields that connect to cones in the fovea. Magnocellular cells Ganglion cells with large bodies and large receptive fields that detect movement and patterns. Koniocellular cells Ganglion cells with small bodies that occur throughout the retina. Sensitive period Time in development when experiences have a strong and lasting influence on vision.
Saccade Eye movement during which motion blindness occurs. Amplitude Intensity of sound wave. Frequency Number of compressions per second measured in Hz. Pitch Related aspect of perception associated with frequency. Timbre Tone quality and complexity. Prosody Conveying emotional information by tone of voice. Pinna Outer ear structure that helps locate the source of sound. Tympanic membrane/eardrum Vibrates when sound waves reach the middle ear. Hammer/malleus One of the three bones in the middle ear. Anvil/incus One of the three bones in the middle ear. Stirrup/stapes One of the three bones in the middle ear that transmits vibrations to the oval window. Basilar membrane Vibrates with sound waves, affecting pitch perception.
Conductive deafness Ability to hear oneself but not others. Nerve deafness Damage to cochlea that impairs hearing certain frequencies. Tinnitus Ringing in ears. Pacinian corpuscle Receptor that responds to sudden displacement of skin. Somatosensory cortex S Processes touch experiences and sensations. Gate theory Idea that stimulation of certain axons can close gates for pain messages. Opioids Mechanisms through which the brain stops prolonged pain. Taste Stim from taste buds (receptors on tongue) Papillae Located in papillae Adaptation Decreased response to stim as result of recent exposure to it Olfaction Sense of smell (response to Chem that contact membranes in inside of nose) Olfactory cells Neurons responsible for smell
Muscle proprioceptors Detect stretch & tension of muscle Stretch reflex Contraction of muscle in response to stretch Muscle spindle Type of muscle contractor that is receptor parallel to muscle that responds to stretch Golgi tendon organs Receptors that respond to increases in muscle tension, stop further contraction Motor program Fixed sequence of movements- once starts fixed till end Ballistic movement Motion that proceeds as single organized unit, cannot be redirected once it begins Primary motor cortex Electrical stim here elicits movement Supplementary motor cortex Planning & organizing movement (prep) Prefrontal cortex Outcome to movements; damage leads to disorganized movement Mirror neurons Cells active during movement & watching someone move Lateral lobe From primary motor cortex to nearby areas & red nucleus (midbrain for arm movement) Medial lobe Extents from cerebral cortex, midbrain, medulla to spinal cord
Cerebellum Important for aspects of attention and precise timing of short intervals Basal ganglia Influence on self-initiated movements (slower), controls vigor of movements, important for learning motor habits Purkinje cells Flat neurons arranged in a geometric pattern Parallel fibers Axons parallel to another (perpendicular to planes of Purkinje cells) Action potentials in parallel Excites Purkinje cells Parkinson's disease Gradual loss of dopamine-releasing axons from substantia nigra to striatum Striatum Organizes & motivates action; decrease leads to weak and hard movements plus unwanted movements such as tremors L-dopa Treatment for Parkinson's disease; limited effect due to variation in gut bacteria that metabolize it Huntington's disease Characterized by jerky arm movements, facial twitches, psychological symptoms CAG repeats Count numbers of consecutive repeats of combos CAG on gene in chromosome 4 Engram The theoretical physical trace of memory in the brain
