Download WGU D574 - Neuropsychology Questions With Correct Solutions, Already Passed!! and more Exams Advanced Education in PDF only on Docsity!
WGU D574 - Neuropsychology
functional explanation - ✔️ ✔️ the description of why a structure or behavior evolved as it did, identifying the adaptive benefits conferred by certain traits ontogenetic explanation - ✔️ ✔️ the description of the developmental processes underlying a behavior or trait, often involving genetic and environmental influences during an organism's lifespan physiological explanation - ✔️ ✔️ the description of the relationship between a behavior and the activity of the brain and other bodily organs, focusing on the biological mechanisms underlying behavior neuroethics - ✔️ ✔️ The study of ethical issues arising from research in neuroscience and related fields, including concerns about animal research and human experimentation three R's - ✔️ ✔️ reduction, replacement, and refinement; legal standards for animal research aimed at reducing the number of animals used, finding alternatives to animal models when possible, and refining procedures to minimize pain and distress astrocytes - ✔️ ✔️ star-shaped glial cells that wrap around dendrites, synchronize closely related neurons, and regulate blood flow in active brain areas axon - ✔️ ✔️ a thin fiber of constant diameter that conveys impulses from one neuron to another dendrites - ✔️ ✔️ branching fibers that receive information from other neurons and contain synaptic receptors glia - ✔️ ✔️ non-neuronal cells that support and protect neurons, including astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells mitochondria - ✔️ ✔️ organelles responsible for generating energy (ATP) in cells, which is crucial for brain function, cognition, and mental health myelin sheath - ✔️ ✔️ insulating material that surrounds and protects certain vertebrate axons, improving the speed of nerve impulses behavioral neuroscience - ✔️ ✔️ the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience, emphasizing the relationship between biology and psychology
biological psychology - ✔️ ✔️ also known as biopsychology, psychobiology, or physiological psychology, this branch of psychology focuses on understanding behavior through physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms consciousness - ✔️ ✔️ the state or quality of awareness, subjectivity, and experience, particularly in the context of the mind-body problem and its relationship to brain activity evolutionary explanation - ✔️ ✔️ the description of the evolutionary history of a structure or behavior, highlighting modifications from ancestral species and adaptive advantages neurons - ✔️ ✔️ specialized cells responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information in the nervous system soma - ✔️ ✔️ the cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria synapse - ✔️ ✔️ junction between two neurons where chemical signals are transmitted from one neuron to another action potential - ✔️ ✔️ messages sent by axons, characterized by depolarization of the neuron membrane all-or-none law - ✔️ ✔️ the principle stating that all action potentials, once initiated, are approximately equal in amplitude and velocity, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus depolarization - ✔️ ✔️ reduction of the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron, leading to the initiation of an action potential hyperpolarization - ✔️ ✔️ increased polarization of the neuron membrane, resulting in a more negative charge inside the cell compared to the outside nodes of Ranvier - ✔️ ✔️ short sections along myelinated axons where the myelin sheath is interrupted, facilitating rapid transmission of action potentials refractory period - ✔️ ✔️ period during which the neuron membrane is resistant to starting another action potential immediately after an action potential resting potential - ✔️ ✔️ the electrical charge difference between the inside and outside of a neuron when it is not transmitting signals. excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) - ✔️ ✔️ a graded depolarization of a postsynaptic neuron's membrane, making it more likely to generate an action potential inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) - ✔️ ✔️ a graded hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic neuron's membrane, making it less likely to generate an action potential
sympathetic nervous system - ✔️ ✔️ portion of the nervous system that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses, increasing heart rate and decreasing digestive activity anterior commissure - ✔️ ✔️ a bundle of axons connecting corresponding parts of the two cerebral hemispheres binding problem - ✔️ ✔️ the theoretical challenge of understanding how different brain areas coordinate to produce unified perceptions cerebral cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the largest part of the mammalian brain, responsible for higher brain functions such as perception, cognition, and voluntary movement lobes - ✔️ ✔️ the four main regions of the cerebral cortex—occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal—that are associated with different functions prefrontal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the anterior portion of the frontal lobe, responsible for decision- making, planning, and aspects of memory and cognition temporoparietal junction - ✔️ ✔️ the area where the parietal lobe and temporal lobe meet; it is important for attention, body awareness, and social cognition visual cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the area of the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information Ablation - ✔️ ✔️ the surgical removal of a brain area, typically performed with a surgical knife, to produce localized brain damage in laboratory animals for research purposes computerized axial tomography (CAT) - ✔️ ✔️ a method of brain imaging that uses X- rays to produce detailed maps of brain areas, often used to detect tumors and structural abnormalities electroencephalography (EEG) - ✔️ ✔️ a method for recording the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp, which provides insights into brain activity patterns during different states, such as wakefulness, sleep stages, and during seizures functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - ✔️ ✔️ an imaging technique that measures changes in blood oxygenation levels to detect brain activity, providing detailed spatial information about brain function Lesion - ✔️ ✔️ damage caused to a specific brain area, often created in laboratory animals using a stereotaxic instrument to precisely target and damage brain regions magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - ✔️ ✔️ a brain imaging method that uses powerful magnetic fields and radio frequency fields to produce detailed images of brain anatomy, providing information about the sizes of brain areas
optogenetic stimulation - ✔️ ✔️ method that uses light to control the activity of specific neurons modified to express light-sensitive proteins, allowing for precise manipulation of neural activity phrenology - ✔️ ✔️ a pseudoscientific practice of relating skull anatomy to behavior, based on the assumption that specific brain functions are localized to particular areas of the skull transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - ✔️ ✔️ the application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the scalp, which can either stimulate or inactivate neurons below the magnet, enabling researchers to study behavior with brain areas temporarily active or inactive bipolar cells - ✔️ ✔️ neurons located closer to the center of the eye that receive messages from the receptors and send them to ganglion cells color constancy - ✔️ ✔️ the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting conditions. It involves comparing the color of one object with the color of another and adjusting perception accordingly color vision deficiency - ✔️ ✔️ a condition where individuals have difficulty distinguishing between certain colors due to the absence or abnormality of cone photopigments in the retina Cones - ✔️ ✔️ receptors in the retina responsible for color vision and useful in bright light; abundant in and near the fovea dark current - ✔️ ✔️ the resting potential of rods, which is less depolarized compared to most neurons ganglion cells - ✔️ ✔️ cells located closer to the center of the eye that receive messages from bipolar cells and send them to the brain as the optic nerve light adaptation - ✔️ ✔️ the process by which the retina adjusts to bright light conditions, involving the decrease in sensitivity of rods and cones photoreceptors - ✔️ ✔️ cells in the retina that contain photopigments and respond to light; rods and cones Retina - ✔️ ✔️ the visual-receptor lined rear surface of the eye, where light is projected and visual information is processed Rods - ✔️ ✔️ receptors in the retina responsible for vision in dim light and abundant in the periphery of the retina
motion blindness - ✔️ ✔️ an impairment in the ability to perceive movement, despite having normal vision in other regards prosopagnosia - ✔️ ✔️ a condition characterized by difficulty in recognizing faces, often resulting from damage to the fusiform gyrus or its connections ventral stream - ✔️ ✔️ pathway in the visual cortex is responsible for perceiving objects, also known as the "what" pathway middle temporal cortex (MT) - ✔️ ✔️ brain region involved in detecting the direction and speed of moving objects, also known as area V Amusia - ✔️ ✔️ difficulty perceiving changes in tones or detecting off-key singing or melodies; commonly known as "tone deafness" basilar membrane - ✔️ ✔️ a membrane within the cochlea that varies in stiffness along its length, enabling the perception of different frequencies of sound, also known as the place theory cochlea - ✔️ ✔️ a snail-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear, which contains hair cells that convert sound vibrations into electrical signals for the brain to interpret conductive deafness - ✔️ ✔️ impediments in the transmission of sound waves through the middle ear to the cochlea, often caused by diseases or bone growth; also known as middle-ear deafness inner ear - ✔️ ✔️ the innermost part of the ear, which contains the cochlea and vestibular system and is responsible for converting sound vibrations into neural signals and maintaining balance nerve deafness - ✔️ ✔️ a condition that results from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve, often leading to irreversible hearing loss; also known as inner-ear deafness Pitch - ✔️ ✔️ the perceived frequency of a sound wave, influencing the perception of high or low tones in auditory stimuli timbre - ✔️ ✔️ the unique characteristic of a sound that distinguishes it from others, influenced by factors such as harmonics and instrument type; also known as tone quality vestibular system - ✔️ ✔️ the sensory system responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation, including the semicircular canals and otolith organs which are located in the inner ear dermatome - ✔️ ✔️ a limited area of the body, innervated by a single spinal nerve
endorphins - ✔️ ✔️ endogenous morphines produced by the brain that bind to opiate receptors and relieve different types of pain free nerve ending - ✔️ ✔️ a type of somatosensory receptor found in any skin area, responsible for detecting pain and temperature hair follicle receptor - ✔️ ✔️ receptors found in hair-covered skin, responsible for detecting movement of hairs and skin stroke Merkel's corpuscles - ✔️ ✔️ receptors found in hairless areas, primarily on the fingertips, responsible for discriminative touch and vibration Pacinian corpuscles - ✔️ ✔️ receptors found in any skin area, responsible for detecting vibration or sudden touch somatosensation - ✔️ ✔️ the sensation of the body and its movements, including touch, deep pressure, pain, and temperature Synapses - ✔️ ✔️ junctions between nerve cells where information is transmitted from one neuron to another vestibular sensation - ✔️ ✔️ sensation responsible for detecting head position and movement, crucial for maintaining balance and guiding eye movements Anosmia - ✔️ ✔️ t he loss of the sense of smell, often caused by factors such as head trauma or aging Glomeruli - ✔️ ✔️ clusters of cells in the olfactory bulb that receive input from olfactory sensory neurons taste receptors - ✔️ ✔️ modified skin cells responsible for detecting taste stimuli Umami - ✔️ ✔️ the taste sensation associated with savory or meaty flavors olfactory receptors - ✔️ ✔️ proteins located on olfactory sensory neurons that detect odor molecules in the nasal passages piriform cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the primary olfactory cortex where neurons respond to combinations of chemicals, contributing to the perception of odors synesthesia - ✔️ ✔️ a phenomenon where stimulation of one sense evokes a perception in another sense ballistic movement - ✔️ ✔️ a type of movement executed as a whole without adjustment, similar to a reflex
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) - ✔️ ✔️ antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin, commonly prescribed to alleviate depression symptoms seasonal affective disorder (SAD) - ✔️ ✔️ a type of depression that occurs at specific times of the year, typically during the fall and winter months serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) - ✔️ ✔️ a class of antidepressant medications that block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine tricyclics - ✔️ ✔️ antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, used to treat depression but are associated with various side effects unipolar depression: a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and low mood without the occurrence of manic or hypomanic episodes - ✔️ ✔️ antipsychotic drugs - ✔️ ✔️ medications used to alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine synapses delusions - ✔️ ✔️ unjustifiable beliefs, often of a social nature, experienced by individuals with schizophrenia hallucinations - ✔️ ✔️ false sensory experiences, such as hearing voices, commonly reported by individuals with schizophrenia Schizophrenia - ✔️ ✔️ a mental disorder characterized by a range of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and atypical movements dopamine receptors - ✔️ ✔️ receptors in the brain that respond to dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in various brain functions, including movement, emotion, and pleasure mesolimbocortical system - ✔️ ✔️ a dopamine pathway in the brain that projects from the midbrain to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex, involved in regulating emotions and cognitive functions mesostriatal system - ✔️ ✔️ a dopamine pathway in the brain that projects to the basal ganglia, involved in motor control synaptic reorganization - ✔️ ✔️ the process whereby synapses are reorganized and strengthened during sleep, contributing to memory consolidation and cognitive function addiction - ✔️ ✔️ a state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences Agonist - ✔️ ✔️ a substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response
Antagonist - ✔️ ✔️ a substance that blocks or dampens a biological response by binding to a receptor craving - ✔️ ✔️ an intense, persistent urge or desire for a substance or activity dopamine - ✔️ ✔️ a neurotransmitter associated with motivation, reward, and pleasure tolerance - ✔️ ✔️ the diminished response to a drug that occurs with continued use, necessitating higher doses to achieve the same effect Withdrawal - ✔️ ✔️ the physiological and psychological effects that occur when a person stops using a substance on which they have become dependent antidepressant drugs - ✔️ ✔️ medications used to alleviate symptoms of depression by increasing neurotransmitter levels or facilitating neurotrophins deep brain stimulation - ✔️ ✔️ a treatment method involving the implantation of a device in the brain to deliver electrical stimulation to specific areas implicated in depression agonist - ✔️ ✔️ a drug that mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter, facilitating transmission at synapses Antagonist - ✔️ ✔️ a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter, inhibiting transmission at synapses circadian rhythm - ✔️ ✔️ regularly occurring patterns of activity and inactivity that follow a cycle of roughly 24-hours, influenced by environmental cues like light and temperature inhibitory processes - ✔️ ✔️ mechanisms in the brain that decrease arousal, leading to feelings of tiredness and promoting sleep neurocognitive model - ✔️ ✔️ a theory of dreaming that regards dreams as a form of thinking that occurs under unusual conditions, with the brain's motivations, memories, and arousal influencing the content of dreams rapid eye movement (REM) sleep - ✔️ ✔️ a phase of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming mirror neurons - ✔️ ✔️ neurons active during both movement execution and observation, thought to play a role in understanding others' actions parallel fibers - ✔️ ✔️ axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, which excite Purkinje cells, one after another primary motor cortex - ✔️ ✔️ brain region located in the frontal cortex that is responsible for initiating movements, with axons projecting to the brainstem and spinal cord
language acquisition device - ✔️ ✔️ a concept proposed by Noam Chomsky, suggesting that humans have a built-in mechanism for acquiring language, facilitating rapid and effortless language learning in children lateralization - ✔️ ✔️ the division of functions between the left and right hemispheres of the brain temporal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the region of the brain associated with processing auditory information Wernicke's aphasia - ✔️ ✔️ a language impairment characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech, difficulty finding the right words, and poor comprehension of language; also known as fluent aphasia frontotemporal dementia - ✔️ ✔️ a condition characterized by gradual degeneration of parts of the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, leading to deficits in social behavior and decision-making orbitofrontal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the brain region that evaluates each possible choice relative to the value of other available choices in decision-making processes Oxytocin - ✔️ ✔️ a hormone associated with bonding and social cognition, which has been studied for its effects on social behavior and relationships perceptual decisions - ✔️ ✔️ decisions where neurons in the parietal cortex respond to evidence favoring one choice or the other and cells in the prefrontal cortex compare them to determine the preferred choice prefrontal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the brain region that plays a crucial role in decision-making processes, with different subregions involved in factual and value-based decisions, as well as in social behavior and regulation activation-synthesis hypothesis - ✔️ ✔️ according to this hypothesis, dreams represent the brain's effort to make sense of sparse and distorted information nstrumental conditioning - ✔️ ✔️ a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment, with the learner's behavior controlling the outcome; also known as operant conditioning short-term memory - ✔️ ✔️ a type of memory that stores information temporarily for immediate use, with limited capacity and requiring rehearsal to maintain long-term memory - ✔️ ✔️ a type of memory that stores information for an extended period, with virtually unlimited capacity and the ability to recall information, even after significant time has elapsed
temporal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ the region of the brain involved in processing sensory input and memory formation, often affected in cases of memory impairment such as amnesia working memory - ✔️ ✔️ a type of memory that is distinct from short-term and long-term memory, responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information necessary for ongoing cognitive tasks anterograde amnesia - ✔️ ✔️ an inability to form memories for events that happened after brain damage declarative memory - ✔️ ✔️ deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory, also known as explicit memory Hippocampus - ✔️ ✔️ brain structure involved in the formation and retrieval of declarative memories, spatial navigation, and memory consolidation implicit memory - ✔️ ✔️ memory related to the influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual does not recognize that influence parietal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ part of the brain involved in sensory processing and spatial reasoning procedural memory - ✔️ ✔️ memory involved in the development of motor skills and habits, often implicit and not easily described in words retrograde amnesia - ✔️ ✔️ loss of memory for events before brain damage semantic dementia - ✔️ ✔️ neurological condition characterized by the loss of semantic memory and the ability to understand the meanings of words and concepts striatum - ✔️ ✔️ brain structure involved in habit formation and procedural memory temporal cortex - ✔️ ✔️ region of the brain involved in memory processing and the understanding of sensory input AMPA receptors - ✔️ ✔️ receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate, which open a channel to allow sodium ions to enter the postsynaptic cell associativity - ✔️ ✔️ one of the properties of long-term potentiation (LTP), where pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances the later response to the weak input brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) - ✔️ ✔️ Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a protein involved in the formation and maintenance of LTP gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - ✔️ ✔️ the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
