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PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER 1 STUDY NOTES
Chapter 1 The Task of Philosophy I. Philosophy is Based in Human Curiosity A.Recent Trends on Philosophy 1.A knowledge of terms and the structure and uses of language is important, but we need not substitute the study of instruments—logic, semantics, and linguistic analysis—for the study of the basic problems—the perennial problems of philosophy 2.Why has this fundamental discipline become remote and distant from the immediate concerns of humanity and society? a.First, philosophers at the turn of the century suffered from a sort of identify crisis: as science gained increasing importance and dominance in the modern world, philosophers saw their "arm chair" reflections about life's problems as somehow irrelevant and out-of-touch with the empirical orientation of the scientific quest for facts and reality 1.Philosophers are concerned with the analysis, clarification, and meaning of the statements of science, of history, and of common sense 2.Philosophy does not attempt to give us "new knowledge"; rather it clarifies what we know already and dispels mistaken concepts and views held. b.The second explanation of philosophers' emphasis on linguistic analysis relates to the how philosopher felt they might assist the current pursuits of knowledge. 1.Their role became to "piggy-pack" upon scientists who were at the frontiers of contemporary research and offer their services by way of clarifying the conceptual framework upon which the scientist structured his or her study. 3.Philosophers get paid for being specialists in the area of ideas. cultur e. 4.Richard Rorty suggests that philosophers rethink not only their traditional theories and methods, but especially their basic assumptions about the relationship of philosophy to the rest of Western 5.Philosophy in ancient times was a life and death matter; it was the soul's search for wisdom. 6.In ancient Greece it had the very opposite: instead of a specialized theoretical discipline [called] philosophy, there was a concrete way of life, a total vision of man and the cosmos in the light of which the individual's whole life was to be lived
B.The Relevance of Philosophy Today 1.But unless we develop some fairly consistent and comprehensive view of human nature, the nature of the total order within which we live, and some reasonable scale of values based on an order beyond mere human desires, such things are not likely to provide an enduring basis for our world 2.Philosophy plays a central role in guiding us toward new desires and aspirations
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3. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the
meaning of words and concepts (analytic analysis)
a.Nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language
b.Such persons consider philosophy a specialized field serving the sciences and aiding in the clarification of language rather than a broad field reflecting on all of life's experiences 1.It would limit what we call knowledge to statements about observable facts and their interrelations—that is, to the business of the various sciences. c.Those who take the narrower view neglect, when they do not deny, all generalized worldviews and life views, as well as traditional moral philosophy and theology. affai rs
- From this narrower point of view, the aim of philosophy is to expose confusion and nonsense and to clarify the meaning and use of terms in science and everyday
4. Philosophy probes into the human condition and its unique approach to
understanding
a.Existentialism and phenomenology depart radically from the history of philosophical inquiry and devote exclusive attention to understanding the human experience b.Existentialism focuses on the human condition and in particular the dehumanized situation that present day humans find themselves. 1.Technology and industry have taken over much of lives. life . 2.Religion has also suffered from the critical impact of rational and scientific thought; hence, to could no longer function as a buffer from the demands and stress of 3.In their struggle against this meaninglessness, some existentialist tried to create a world view that did not recognize a God nor did it give in totally to technology c.Phenomenology is another Twentieth Century philosophical movement that looks principally at experience, it makes a concerted effort to describe the content of consciousness 1.The phenomenologist is concerned with concrete things, not so much as they are in everyday affairs, but rather with the essential structures of those things are they are objectively present in our consciousness, which is the matrix of experience. 2.Pure phenomenon: we must start with the human subject and her or his consciousness and endeavor to get back to a "pure consciousness."
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always has sought answers.
d.Philosophy also means the various theories or systems of thought developed by the great philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, Whitehead, and others. III.Philosophical Methodology—Socratic Dialectic A.We have defined philosophy as a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held beliefs 1.To achieve that end, we believe that the basic method of philosophical inquiry is dialectical 2.Socrates employs the method of dialectic; he engages in argumentation, in a relentless analysis of any and every subject a.Socrates was convinced that the surest way to attain reliable knowledge was through the practice of disciplined conversation, with the investigator acting as an intellectual midwife; we call the method he used dialectic. b.Socrates, and many later philosophers, believed that through the process of this dialogue, in which each participant in the conversation was forced to clarify her or his ideas, the final outcome of the conversation would be a clear statement of what was meant. c.What is important is that the dialectic is the development of thought through interplay of ideas. othe r 3.Dialectical thinking, and consequently dialectic as a method, attempts to develop a sustained pattern of argument in which the implications of different positions are drawn out and interact with each 4.In Socratic fashion, philosophy proceeds by attempting to correct incomplete or inaccurate notions, by "coaxing" the truth out of the situation a.Socrates is famous for his belief that the unexamined life is not worth living; similarly, philosophy proceeds with the conviction that the unexamined idea is not worth having IV. Traditional Branches of Philosophy A.Logic 1.Philosophy endeavors to understand the nature of correct thinking and to discover what is valid reasoning 2.One thread running throughout the history of philosophy is its appeal to reason, to argumentation, to logic. 3.But how do we distinguish between valid and invalid arguments? a.Basically, an argument is simply the reasons (called the premises ) for or against a position (called the conclusion ).
b.An interference is a conclusion derived either from general premises (deduction) or from factual evidence (induction).
nature, and validity of knowledge.
2.The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology, which comes from the Greek word
episteme, meaning "knowledge".
a.What are the sources of knowledge? Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? (Question of origins) b.What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if so can we know it? (Question of appearance versus reality) c.Is our knowledge valid? How do we distinguish truth from error? (Questions of the tests of truth, of verification) 3.The rationalists hold that human reason alone can discover the basic principles of the universe. 4.The empiricists claim that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experience and, thus, that our knowledge is limited to what can be experienced. D. Axiology or Value Theory 1.Axiology or value theory is the branch of philosophy that questions values. 2.It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy 3.In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question of morality.
4.Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics,
normative ethics, and
metaethics
a.Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a descriptive way. 1.We seek to identify, within the range of human conduct, the motives, desire, and intentions as well as overt acts themselves 2.We consider the conduct of individuals or personal morality; the conduct of groups, or social morality; and the culture patterns of national and racial groups 3.Descriptive ethics is in part an attempt to distinguish what is from what ought to be b.A second level of inquiry is normative ethics (what ought to be) 1.Here philosophers try to work out acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in choice and value 2."We ought to keep our promises" and "you ought to be honorable" are examples of normative judgments of the moral ought, the subject matter of ethics theories
1.It is centered on the analysis and meaning of the terms and language used in ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical statements 2.What is the meaning of "good?" and Can ethical judgments be justified? are typical problems for metaethics. 5.Philip Wheelwright has written a clear and precise definition of ethics: "Ethics may be defined as that branch of philosophy which is the systematic study of reflective choice, of the standards of right or wrong by which is to be guided, and of the goods toward which it may ultimately be directed" 6.Aesthetics concern the theory of art and beauty V. The Uses of Philosophy A.Philosophy is Inescapable 1.Everybody has some notion of reality a.Whether fully examined or not, ides about the origin, destiny, and fabric of existence— including views about God and human nature—have a place in each person's mind 2.Everyone also has some notion of knowledge a.Ideas about the authentic sources of knowledge, about subjective beliefs in contrast to objective truths, and about methods that prove a conclusion true or false form a part of everyday life. B.A Means to Enhance One's Mind 1.The usefulness of choosing from reasoned, researched alternatives rather than from bigoted; impulsive, and unclear claims is apparent in all dimensions of our lives 2.Ideally, the study of philosophy nurtures our capacity for making informed decisions C. Specific Personal Uses 1.Wisdom is what provides us with that sense: it is an affair of values 2.Abraham Kaplan has written regarding wisdom: Whatever else wisdom may be, it is in some sense an understanding of life; Wisdom is a matter of seeing things-but as they are, not subjectively 3.Each occupation is in the process of identifying the ethical issues it confronts in practice 4.The usefulness of identifying and understanding options—a task undertaken by philosophers—is evident 5."Applied philosophy" today is not only a useful part of our lives, it is
necessary to conduct daily existence. VI.Conclusion A.The study of philosophy contributes distinctively and substantially to the development of students' critical thinking. It enhances their ability to rationally with normative issues. It extends their understanding
a. Humans employ a unique array of modalities in the use of
communication amongst each other: Articulate speech, oral and
written language and the use of symbols are the principal vehicles of culture; they keep alive and continuously feed memory and imagination. Language in its various forms is the instrument of both personal and social communication and is basic to human society
b. As far as we can discover, only humans invent repeatedly, make
complex tools, and build machines: they light fires, build intricate
shelters, wear clothes and ornaments; they have learned to fly, to journey under the sea, to travel to interstellar space, to construct a shuttle between earth and manufactured satellites and to project their images and voices around the world
3. Humans are fundamentally social and cultural beings who create and
maintain social structures and create a social identity that is an extension
of their own identity
a. Humans are social and political creatures that enact laws, establish rules
of conduct, and are learning to cooperate in large units: Cooperation
among individuals and groups is essential for the development of the institutions of agriculture, industry, education,, science, government, and religion; Human progress appears to depend on the ability of people to cooperate in larger and larger groups; social cooperation is one condition for a good life in an interdependent society
b. Only humans are conscious of history and have a cumulative cultural
tradition: they look into the past and make plans for the future; they
participate in the making of history by their decisions, whether these are responsible and intelligent or irresponsible and impulsive
4. Humans have an axiological dimension to their interpretation of the
world and their expression of individual thoughts, words, and
actions
a. Humans have aesthetic appreciation: they decorate themselves and
their artifacts for the enjoyment it brings, often without any utilitarian purpose
b. Human beings have a sense of right and wrong and of values: They are
ethical creatures with a moral conscience; moral progress usually comes through the insights of a quickened or haunted conscience or through creative individuals
c. Humans are religious beings in that they worship and engage in
ritualistic or ceremonial practices: People worship, pray, repent,
and ask forgiveness is a worldwide phenomenon; even though some become agnostic or atheistic, they tend to replace a personal god with an impersonal one—the state, race, some process in nature, or devotion to the search for truth or some other ideal III.Human Beings and Evolution A.Organic Evolution 1.Introduction
d.In general, the theory is that life proceeds from the simple to the more complex or from the lower to higher forms. e.The term higher here means increased structural complexity and range of functions or powers
f. Evolution is the name of this process of change; evolutionism, or the theory
of evolution, is the interpretation of how the process proceeds 2.Natural Selection a.The most important feature of Darwin's theory, and the most important single contribution ever made to the understanding of evolution,
was the idea of natural selection.
b.The abrupt, random changes in heredity observed by geneticists are called mutations, and to explain evolution on this basis alone is mutationism.
- When we look more closely the random elements on evolution, we discover that is impossible for evolution to occur entirely at random; there is more to it than accident and chance. c.The modern theory of evolution is in part a synthesis and antichance or oriented evolution. 1.The latter notion is that evolution tends to occur in straight lines: once a certain sort of structural change has started in a given group, it tends to continue without deviation until the extinction of that group d.A combination of mutations in heredity and oriented evolution results in a basis for understanding biological evolution; in other words, the process of evolution occurs because of a combination of random and ordered factors. e.Darwin cited two additional factors that, in conjunction with natural selection, affect the evolution of populations: sexual selection and the inheritance of characteristics acquired during the lifetime of the individual organism 3.Sexual Selection a.Selection in favor of a characteristic that will increase the tendency to produce young will occur even though it may not be favored by natural selection b.The loss of body hair, for example, is attributed to systematic choice by our ancestors of mates who exhibited large regions of bare skin 4.Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics a.He suggested that some variations are due to the action of the
environment on the germ plasma and that some variations are due to the action of the environment on the germ plasma and that others are due to the effects of use and disuse b.For example, if an animal's skin is tanned by sunlight, this might result in change in its germ plasma that would result in its offspring possessing pretanned skin; or if a wolf developed its muscles by chasing rabbits, its pups might inherit larger muscles.
