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SPECTRUM OF LOCAL AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
SPECTRUM OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
Figure 13 : Exchange of local and scientific knowledge and learning is beneficial to all parties
Co-management is most likely to succeed if the resource is one that stakeholders already have good knowledge of.
Stakeholder analysis
The art and science of stakeholder analysis helps to systematically determine who needs to be a partner in the co-management arrangement, and whose interests are too remote to make this necessary.
Special care must be taken to ensure that voiceless and disadvantaged groups that may include women, youth, the elderly and poor people, are not excluded from the analysis.
Stakeholder analysis identifies stakeholders by asking questions including :
♦ Who is directly affected by the problem situation being addressed? ♦ What are the interests of various groups in relation to the problem? ♦ How do groups perceive the management problem to affect them? ♦ What resources do groups bring to bear (for good or bad) on the problem? ♦ What organizational or institutional responsibilities do the groups have? ♦ Who should benefit, or be protected from, management interventions? ♦ What conflicts may groups have with each other and management strategies? ♦ What management activities may satisfy the interests of the various groups?
Decision-making, power and equity
The power advantages of the strong and the disadvantages of the weak make them both reluctant to co-manage because of nothing to gain and too much to loose, respectively. It is essential to be aware of power differences and dynamics. An issue in decision-making is that resource users often have not sought to use their organisations as vehicles for representation, or have not been effective in doing so. For example, fishers in many places consider themselves to be relatively powerless in relation to other stakeholders in the fishing industry and coastal zone, especially in relation to tourism-related groups (Figure 14).
T o u rism
F ish e rs
O th e r fish e r y
sta k e h o ld e rs
Figure 14 : Fishers may feel relatively powerless in coastal decision-making
Co-management is likely to re-distribute power and to be resisted by those who want to avoid losing, or sharing, power.
Common levels of decision-making in countries of the Caribbean region are :
♦ Local — village council, elders ♦ Municipal — town council, mayor ♦ District or parish — parliamentary ♦ National — central government ♦ Regional — OECS, CARICOM ♦ International — UN agencies
L o c a l
D i s t r i c t
N a t i o n a l
Figure 15 : Decisions made at different levels of representation
Co-management arrangements can assist in motivating organisations to realise their true potential and increase self-reliance if they gain confidence from successful outcomes of decisions in which they have played a major part.
Almerigi’s book on leadership for fisherfolk lists some of the most important characteristics and personal qualities that fishers of the Caribbean region look for in their organisational leaders:
♦ Embraces, and is committed to pursuing, the group’s goals ♦ Identifies the needs, and respects the values, of members ♦ Knows the problems and aspirations of the membership ♦ Values consensus decision-making and every contribution ♦ Treats the members fairly, transparently and equitably ♦ Encourages flexibility, creativity, tolerance, self-discipline ♦ Learns from mistakes and motivates others to excellence
Leadership style may determine the chances of successfully negotiating agreements, reaching consensus and encouraging buy-in to support compromise outcomes.
Style of leadership is very relevant to co-management. There are three main styles, and clearly the participative or democratic style is fundamentally most compatible. However, authoritarian or delegating approaches may be more appropriate at times.
♦ Delegating or laissez faire
Classification of leadership style: ♦ Authoritarian or autocratic ♦ Participative or democratic
Communication, cooperation and coordination
According to co-management partners in the region there is need for considerable improvement in communication, cooperation and coordination. These terms are closely related, but different.
Communication is the basis for the other two. Cooperation follows communication if the parties that have been informed decide to work with, and not in conflict with, each other. Cooperation does not necessarily result in coordination, but is needed for it. Coordination requires communication and leadership for harmonisation of activities. This is facilitated by assignment of responsibilities in co-management. All three concepts are critical to co- management.
Figure 16 describes the basics of communication.
FILTERS AND INTERFERENCE
RECEIVER’S INTERPRETATION
SENDER’S INTENTION
Figure 17 : Transparency has many positive effects
co-management it is especially important to ensure that stakeholders can
Conflict management and negotiation
onflict management is facilitated negotiation. Third party interventions increase
Unassisted interaction — information exchange
board
Figure 16 : Communication can be a complex process
The main point is that communication is seldom as straightforward as it seems. The many stakeholders, with diverse backgrounds, that comprise a co- management arrangement can make effective communication quite challenging.
This challenge can be overcome by being conscious of the characteristics of the various end users of information revealed in the stakeholder’s analysis and by learning how best to reach each of them.
Pathway : channel or institution, e.g. NGO, school Product : package, e.g. video, newspaper article Activity : associated event, e.g. workshop, lecture End users : targets of communication, e.g. fishers
Formal and informal communication, cooperation and coordination have to be used wisely at the appropriate junctures. This chain of communication with positive feedback is shown in Figure 17.
Transparency Information sharing Participation Decision-making
In receive information, and also present it, in the manner that is most suitable for them. This is linked to respect.
C
as you read down this list:
♦ ♦ Relationship building assistance — team-building ♦ Moderate assistance — guidance, facilitation ♦ Major assistance — full mediation, settlement ♦ Non-binding decision —tribunal or arbitration panel
our principles of negotiation are :
Separate the people from the problem — do not personalise the problems or
♦ rests, not positions — address the root causes, not symptoms
♦ s for mutual gain — develop a series of innovative solutions and
♦ g objective criteria — use agreed upon standards for deciding
Compliance and enforcement
hese are challenging areas for co-management because while all stakeholders
o-management arrangements facilitate enforcement by incorporating the
eak enforcement undermines co-management by increasing the uncertainty of
ummary
o-management is more likely to be successful, and objectives-driven, when it
actors influencing compliance include :
Benefits from non-compliance ions
dual
F
rely on trust Focus on inte or postures Invent option choose later Insist on usin among options
T
may contribute towards compliance, it is often only the State that can deal with enforcement in a definitive manner.
C responsible agency as a stakeholder where possible.
W resource sustainability and decreasing the returns on participation in co- management.
F
♦ Deterrents, penalties and sanct ♦ Actual outcomes of enforcement ♦ Perceived legitimacy of regulations ♦ Practicality of the regulations ♦ Norms and morals of the indivi ♦ Level of participation in management
S
C
incorporates a participatory planning process. Learning by doing things together builds capacity, trust, respect and legitimacy of both content (the plan) and process (the planning). Although management planning is often thought of as a government exercise, NGOs and other stakeholders can take the initiative to invite government to plan with them for a particular area or resource. Good objectives are important in the context of evaluating the effectiveness of management. This is to make sure that efforts at management are actually achieving the intended results, preferably in a manner that is not wasteful or otherwise inefficient. In a co-management arrangement the local and traditional ecological knowledge of fishers and other sea users is more likely to become incorporated into the planning and management. Local and scientific knowledge
can complement each other. Stakeholder analysis helps to systematically determine who needs to be a partner in the co-management arrangement, and whose interests are too remote to make this necessary. Special care must be taken to ensure that voiceless and disadvantaged groups that may include women, youth, the elderly and poor people, are not excluded from the analysis. Co-management is likely to re-distribute power and to be resisted by those who want to avoid losing, or sharing, power. Equity is about ensuring fairness to co- management stakeholders in several respects. It differs from equality in recognising that capacity, authority and responsibility will vary amongst the partners, but that each should play a role that is appropriate. Building stakeholder capacity for co-management is essential in the Caribbean, and a critical first step in many places. In many cases capacity can be built fairly simply if the stakeholders were to engage in collaborative activities in which complementary skills transfer was intended. Leadership is a key element of building capacity. Without good leadership it is unlikely that appropriate capacity will be built in any organization. According to co-management partners in the region there is need for considerable improvement in communication, cooperation and coordination. All three concepts are critical to co-management. More attention to formal conflict management is necessary to ensure that minor matters did not threaten the success of co-management arrangements. The goal of conflict management is not to avoid conflict, but to supply skills that can help people express their differences and solve their problems for win-win, or mutually beneficial, outcomes. Compliance with, and enforcement of, environmental legislation is generally poor in the Caribbean. Co-management arrangements facilitate enforcement by incorporating the responsible agency as a stakeholder where possible.
cknowledgements
ing Lecturers, Heads of Department and associates of the University of the est Indies, Cave Hill Campus, who made significant contributions to the development of this
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We wish to thank the follow W document. Dr. Hazel Oxenford, Dr. Robin Mahon, Mrs. Janice Cumberbatch, Ms. Neetha Selliah, and Ms. Maria Pena of the Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES). Dr. Angela Fields and Dr. Julia Horrocks of the Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences. Dr. Karl Watson in the Department of History and Philosophy. Mr. Derrick Oderson, CERMES Associate, Law (Ministry of the Environment) and Dr. Vernese Inniss, CERMES Associate, Planning (Alleyne Planning Associates). Special thanks to lecturers and heads of Departments of the University of the West Indies St. Augustine and Mona Campuses, the URACCAN Bluefield Campus and the Glover’s Reef Advisory Committee for evaluating and testing this document.
