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Orcher Final Exam
The term "empirical research" refers to making systematic observations to collect what? - Empirical research makes systematic observations to collect new information; empirical deriving from empiricism (which refers to acquiring information using observation). According to this chapter, everyday observations can be a source of ideas for research topics. This is especially true when what is observed? - This is true when something unexpected is observed. Which of the following is generally held in higher regard? - Theoretical research is held in higher regard i. Theories are statements of principles that help explain why a wide array of behaviors is exhibited and how certain types of behaviors are associated with other types. ii. Suitable research can be found be considering predictions based on a theory. iii. Testing a prediction based on a theory is similar to a test of the theory. iv. Research contributing to theory building is held in higher regard compared to non-theoretical research due to the fact that theories have many applications; and research that tests theories typically has more implications than research that does not explore issues from a theoretical perspective. Should the availability of participants be considered only after a research topic has been refined into research purposes/hypotheses? Explain. - The topic needs to be refined to a certain point to determine the actual participants that are needed to complete the study. Once you have determined that early in the topic identification process, it is important to ensure participants are available as some may be too difficult to reach to conduct the study or may not be able to at all depending on each unique situation and research project. Examples of this may be that there are not enough participants to participate in the study to ensure accurate data; or the participants may be minors that are required to have parent consent before they are able to participate, but the parents refuse to approve. If the researcher finds that the participants needed for the study are not available early in the process, they can either reassess the topic to determine if there are other options for participants or they can abandon the study altogether. Either way, selecting participants early in the process will prevent time and effort wasted. Is it safe to assume that if a researcher does not plan to administer treatments, no ethical considerations need be applied when selecting a research topic? Explain. -
All research topics need to prevent the potential for harm, but that can be taken into consideration not only in regards to the physical aspect but the mental/emotional aspect as well. A simple question may trigger a traumatic event from a person's past, which could cause traumatic psychological stress on that individual; as an example, the question could cause a catalyst of events and possibly lead to suicide. When is deciding to replicate a published study especially recommended? - Replication is especially recommended for studies that had unexpected findings. An example is that a study produced results that are inconsistent with a well-known theory. Replicating the study can help establish whether the results are reliable. b. There are other replications of a study. One is called a modified replication that entails conducting the same study that is slightly altered such as using a different population, using different measuring tools, or using modified treatments. How can a researcher's description of limitations in a published research report assist in the selection of a research topic? - Often listed in the "Discussion" portion of a research report, you can typically find the limitations of the study as well as future directions for research in light of the insights they have gained from the study. These particular limitations listed in the discussion portion can possibly be addressed by future researchers by conducting a replication of the research study in modified form to address the limitations. They then can see if in doing so, the data collected is affected. Research: - systematically collecting and interpreting information Library Research: - Systematic collection and interpretation of materials written by others Observation: - Broad sense; not only using senses to directly observe overt behaviors but also indirect processes and procedures used to collect data such as multiple choice tests, attitude scales and interviews. First step of empirical research is to select a topic; start broad and then narrow it down. The second step is locating literature on the topics. -
Why might a researcher want to research for articles by restricting the search to only the title and/or abstract fields when using a database such as PsycARTICLES? - Limiting the search to terms that are listed only in the title of the article and/or the abstract allow for a more specific search to be conducted and not as many articles to be provided. If a term is just simply searched, then the term may be mentioned just one time in the article and not have a significant impact for that particular article. However, if that term is listed in the title or the abstract, then it is more likely to be more significant to that article (the core of the article) and could be more beneficial to the researcher conducting the literature review. What is the name of the website that allows a researcher to access statistics from more than 100 federal agencies? - www.FedStats.gov is the web address, and researchers can search by agency as well as by topic. Searching by topic automatically searches all agencies for relevant links to federal statistics. This is useful as it allows the researcher to not be required to search each agency separately, and may provide statistics on a topic from an agency the researcher may not be familiar with at first. PsycARTICLES and PsycINFO: - maintained by American Psychological Association (APA). CSA Sociological Abstracts - published by Cambridge Scientific Abstracts. Covers fields including sociology, anthropology, criminology, social psychology, and urban studies. Social Work Abstracts - covers child and family welfare, drug and alcohol addiction, civil rights, family welfare, and various human services Google Scholar: - (www.scholar. Google.com) provides convenient means to search scholarly literature across numerous discipline and NOT include popular media sources like newspaper, blogs, and magazines. Restricting a search to only peer-reviewed articles yields highest quality sources of information -
Theoretical literature can be located searching for a topic term and the term "Theory" with AND as the Boolean operator. Yields articles that most likely contain a discussion of the theories that relate to aging. Entering the name of the theory refers to that specific theory. - Searching for articles by author can allow you to trace the history of the author's work on a particular topic. - Citing specific, relevant statistics when writing a literature review makes it more authoritative and informative. - Keep records of the databases and how they were searched when conducting literature reviews - According to this chapter, preparing a table showing the key features of each article helps to overcome what problem? - Creating a table to show the key features of each article helps prevent getting lost in the details of each individual article you read, which can cause you to miss the overall trends and outcomes of the article. b. When preparing a table, there are several steps: i. Assign each article a unique identifier - a good example is the author's last name and the year of publication. Should be done in the first column of the table ii. Remaining columns can vary and possibly include:
- Type of sample
- Number of participants in the sample
- Measurement approach
- Overall results
- Notable features iii. Once the table has been completed, further inspection of it can allow for further refinement of the research topic What is the first step in writing an essay that synthesizes what studies report about a topic? -
Name several phrases that might be used when citing the results of studies in which you have a high degree of confidence. - It is important to note that no measure is perfect in validity and reliability since perfect samples of participants are rarely available; therefore empirical research is subject to error. It is important to note that using wording to state that research has revealed a universal fact should not be done; instead, using certain phrases that incite confidence should be done. These phrases could possibly include: i. Overwhelming evidence ii. Strong evidence iii. Results of a definitive study iv. Seldom disputed v. Seems very likely that b. It is also important to not certain phrases that portray a weak degree of confidence. These could possibly include: i. Preliminary findings suggest ii. Based on a pilot study iii. Weak evidence hints at iv. It appears that v. Suggests the possibility that c. It is also important to note that when the degree of confidence is not established, then readers assume that the evidence is strong. Other important aspects of literature reviews are:
- Pointing out consistent findings in literature, which allows for the author of the review to have a great deal of support for a particular topic; this in turns allows for more confidence in the literature review
- In addition to identifying what has been studied, literature reviews should also point out the gaps in literature and what is not known about a topic.
- Relevant theories should be discussed and its relationship to the topic (research that pertains to theory is generally held in higher regard). Doing so will ensure the reader is aware and understand the theory and how it relates to the topic. Also pointing out additional theories that support (and possibly contradict) the topic can be useful as well. Which one of the following in-text citations is consistent with APA style? -
APA uses the "author-date" method for in-text citations and can be parenthetical or non- parenthetical. Each in-text citation will have a full bibliographic reference in the references list at the end of the manuscript. b. In a parenthetical in-text citation, the author's last name is listed first followed by a comma, a space, and then the year of the publication. It is important to note that ASA in-text citations do not include a comma after the author's last name in a single author parenthetical in-text citation. c. Therefore the correct answer is A. The field of psychology...dramatic turn (Smith, 2012) Which of the following in-text citations is consistent with APA style? - For two authors, an ampersand is included between the two authors' last names. Therefore the correct answer is: C. The results of recent research on the...consistent (Jones & Solis, 2012). Which one of the following in-text citations for a source with seven co-authors is consistent with ASA style? - The correct answer is B. Teachers in the survey were the most...involvement (Chin et al. 2010). This is due to the fact that there are no commas to separate the authors' last names and the date of the publication. Which of the following in-text citations is consistent with ASA style? - The correct answer is B. The results of the recent research on the...consistent (Jones and Solis 2012). This is due to the fact that the word "and" is used instead of the ampersand and there is no comma. A student formatted the following reference to a journal article using APA style. There is one error in the reference. What is the error? - The error for that particular reference is that it used the word "and" instead of the ampersand when listing the authors of the article. It should have read: Kirk, D. S., & Sampson, R. J. (2013). Juvenile arrests and collateral educational damage in the transition to adulthood. Sociology of Education, 86, 36-62. doi: 10.1177/ In the formatted reference in Question 5, what is the volume number? - The volume number is 86 In the formatted reference in Question 5, what is the name of the journal? - The name of the journal is Sociology of Education
§ Two authors: (Edwards & Jones, 2012). § Three to Five authors: (Washington, Yu, & Gulvan, 2013). for the 1st citation only · Additional in-text citations for three to five authors will be the first author's name only (Washington et al., 2013). § Six or more authors: First and all times the course is cited is (Adams et al., 2012). o Two or more sources: § (Black, 2012; Brown et al., 2011; White & Bright, 2010). o Group is a course: § (Association for Hypothetical Studies, 2010). o Page numbers indicated: § (Lincoln & White, 2012, pp. 6-9). o For non-parenthetical in-text citations, the word "and" is used instead of "&" and is not included in the parentheses. The authors are also the subject of the sentence. An example is: In a newly published book, Bush and Clinton (2013) stress the importance of reducing tensions. ASA: American Sociological Association - Parenthetical in-text citations: o One author: (Doe 2013). o Two authors: (Edwards and Jones 2012). o Three authors: (Washington, Yu and Galvan 2013). o Four or more authors: (Adams et al. 2012). o Two or more sources: (Black 2012; Brown et al. 2011; White and Bright 2010). o Group as a source: (Association for Hypothetical Studies 2010). o Page numbers indicated: (Lincoln and White 2012:6-9). Page numbers immediately appear right after the colon with no space o For non-parenthetical in-text citations, the word "and" is used instead of "&" and is not included in the parentheses. The authors are also the subject of the sentence. An example is: In a newly published book, Bush and Clinton (2013) stress the importance of reducing tensions. This is the same as APA
According to this chapter, what does a hypothesis predict? - Specifically, a research hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study. The predication can be based on a theory, results of previous research, or both. The research hypothesis is typically stated at the end of a literature review. What are the two variables in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between depression and anxiety." - A variable is a trait or characteristic on which individuals differ from each other. And a hypothesis must have at least two variables. b. The variables in the statement are depression and anxiety What are the three variables in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that the quality-of-life ratings will be directly related to income and will be inversely related to social isolation." - The three variables are quality-of-life ratings, income, and social isolation In research, a treatment variable is known as: - The treatment variable is known as the Independent variable (B) What is the deficiency in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that nurses will report 25% more occupational stress that physicians will report." - The deficiency in this hypothesis is that it refers to a specific statistical outcome, which is not recommended since it will not confirm the hypothesis if the exact statistic is not produced. Instead of a specific statistic, a researcher should point out the direction of the predicted outcome. What is the deficiency in the following research purpose? "The research purpose is to explore the effectiveness of therapy." - The deficiency in this research purpose is that it lacks specificity. It wants to explore the effectiveness of therapy but does not state what type of therapy as well as what specifically the therapy is addressing. What is the deficiency in the following research question? "Do student nurses have favorable impressions of alternative medicine?" - A research question should not be formed to receive a simple answer of yes or no because the results are usually mixed. Since this question has been posed for a simple yes or no answer, it is not considered an appropriate research question.
What is the purpose of an experiment? - An experiment is defined as a study in which treatments are given in order to estimate their effects on some outcome variables. An experiment is conducted to explore a cause-and-effect relationship. The independent variable is the variable that is under control of the experiment. The outcome variable is the dependent variable. All experiments must have at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. Treatments are given in which type of research? - Experimental Research What type of nonexperimental research can be used to explore causality? - Nonexperimental research can be used to explore causality but is typically only used for that purpose when they are unable to conduct an experiment that administers treatments. For a quantitative nonexperimental research that explores causality is known as a causal-comparative research (also known as ex post facto research). In this type of research, existing groups are compared to identify a causal sequence in their histories. b. Three conditions must be met to use the causal comparative method: i. The goal is to investigate a cause-and-effect relationship ii. Treatments cannot be given iii. Two similar groups that differ in some outcome What is the most popular way of collecting information in a survey? - A survey is a nonexperimental study that allows for a research study that only calls for what currently exists to be conducted. Such examples include a population survey and a sample survey. b. The most popular way to collect information in a survey is by using a questionnaire. A correlational study is designed to explore the relationship between what? - Correlations studies examine the relationship between two or more sets of scores. An example of this is exhibited in education research that correlates pairs of achievement test variables with each other. A hypothesis could be that scores on math word problems correlates with scores on reading test scores since the math word problems have a large reading component. b. Another example pertains to inverse correlations. An example is that for people who score high on the number times they have been arrested will score low on their level of respect for authority. What is an advantage of document/content-analysis research? -
Document/content-analysis research is when human behavior is explored by examining the contents of documents. Examples of documents can potentially include mass-market publications, school board records, themes and characterizations in television programs and movies, and popular music. b. An advantage of document/content-analysis research is that typically good samples are able to be obtained. However, it is important to note that a disadvantage of document/content-analysis research is that it makes an assumption that these documents accurately reflect attitudes and beliefs of the people who wrote them and those who read them. Why is program evaluation called a "hybrid" in this chapter? - This chapter refers to program evaluation as a "hybrid" since some evaluation efforts have similarities to experimental research while others have similarities to nonexperimental research. b. Program that are administered can be viewed as a treatment to participants (which pertains to experimental research). However, some elements of program evaluation do not deal with the effects or outcomes of the program. It can focus instead on factors affecting their implementation (which pertains to nonexperimental research). Which type of research is more standardized? - In quantitative research, the results are reflected in numbers, such as scores or frequency counts that are able to be analyzed through statistical methods. In order to allow for meaningful analysis, the procedures used to obtain the information must be standardized so that they are the same for every participant. This particular research has a rigid, distant, and impersonal characterization. b. Qualitative research does not need to standardize the data collection to obtain scores. Therefore it does not need to be planned in advance and deviations are allowed and possibly even welcomed. This is quite the opposite compared to quantitative research. c. Therefore the answer to the question is that B. quantitative research is more standardized. According to this chapter, which type of research has more potential for depth in understanding a problem? - Qualitative research has more potential for depth in understanding compared to quantitative research. A reason for this is that qualitative researchers are allowed deviations that enable them to be able to pursue a line of questioning that can be adjusted to allow for a more in depth understanding of the problem Which type of research is more likely to be based on research hypotheses? - Since hypotheses require structured studies in order to test very specific predictions, they are almost always used in B. quantitative research
Document/content-analysis research allows for the researchers to not deal directly with any participants - A widely cited method in qualitative research is participants observation - Qualitative research is typically best for tackling new and emerging topics because since such little information is known, it can be difficult to construct standardized data-collection measures - Hypotheses require structured studies in order to test very specific predictions; therefore they are almost always used in quantitative research - Broad statements of research purposes or research questions are mainly used in qualitative research
Some people are better with one approach (quantitative vs qualitative) over the other - According to this chapter, which one of the following types of research would typically be expected to have a larger number of participants? - The need for a specific number of participants for a study depends on the study. For term projects, a small number of participants may be allowed. For a thesis or dissertation, a larger number than what is required for a term project may be required. Well designed and executed experiments can also allow for a small number of participants. Since qualitative research focuses on in-depth research, then it typically has a smaller number of participants. However, a large, readily accessible, population with hundreds of participants may be needed for a survey to determine its reliability Therefore, the correct answer is that C. Survey research would typically be expected to have a large number of participants.
c. However, it is important to note that HOW participants are selected is typically more important than how many are selected. Which one of the following is usually more important? - Since it is a general rule to select a smaller sample that reflects more diversity of the population of interest compared to a large population with a small range of diversity, the best answer would be B. Selecting a sample that reflects the diversity of the population According to this chapter, what is one of the most fruitful ways to identify norms for the number of participants used for various types of studies on various topics? - Being able to cite participant number used in previous studies allows for the researcher to justify their use for a certain number of participants. Therefore, examining the literature is a fruitful way to identify the norms for the number of participants used for various types of studies on various topics What is "the gold standard" for selecting a sample from a population in quantitative research? - "The gold standard" for quantitative research is using random sampling. Random sampling being that all members of a population must be identified and then must be given an equal chance of being selected. A concept of this is writing down all the names of the participants on individual sheets, mixing them up, and then selecting the number for participants needed. What two reasons are given for why random sampling is sometimes not used? - One reason is that it is frequently difficult to identify all members of a population. b. Another reason is that potential participants whose names are randomly selected refuse to participate. Supposed that 10% of the names of students were drawn separately at random from each grade level in a high school. What is the name of this type of sampling? - This particular sampling is known as stratified random sampling since the same percentage of individuals is drawn from each subgroup at random Is the following a description of a purposive sample? Explain. - "From the students who were enrolled in her sociology class, a professor selected the six students with the lowest test scores for a qualitative study on low-achieving undergraduates. The reason for their selection was that they were readily available to be interviewed by the professor." b. Purposive sampling is when individuals are handpicked to be participants because they have certain characteristics that are believed to make them especially good sources of information. A
researcher to determine that the results do not vary because of the differences in measurements since they are the same. What is a disadvantage of using a measure widely used in previous studies on a topic? - The flaws that the measure contains will affect results of all the studies. Therefore, a justification may be needed when conducting another study on the same topic that utilizes the same measure. "A limitation of the Educational Testing Services ETS Test Collection Database is that it is restricted to educational tests." Is the preceding statement true or false? - The preceding statement is false; this particular database, which contains descriptions for over 25,000 measures (including research and unpublished measures), is not restricted to just educational tests. It is also useful for locating measures on specialized topics According to this chapter, is there any circumstance under which beginning researchers should derive new measures? Explain. - Sometimes new measures need to be derived and can possibly be done in the event that the measures and research goal can be greatly improved if a new measure is derived. It is important to note that for beginner researcher that they may be required to defend their new measure's validity and reliability in their thesis or dissertation. Chapters 14 and 16 will have more details Which of the following deals with the extent to which the results are consistent? - Validity is of great concern in quantitative research and refers to the extent to which measures are measuring what they are supposed to be measuring. Reliability refers to consistency, which is desirable for measuring a stable trait. b. Therefore the correct answer is B. Reliability Having experts make judgments regarding the contents of a measure is an approach to studying which of the following? - Validity Using "member checks" is a technique in qualitative research that helps to establish which one of the following? - A. Credibility of measurers, which is when the researcher shares the interpretation of the results with participants to get their input on their interpretations of the data and whether or not they reflected the meanings the participants meant to portray.
- Having more than one individual code and interpret the data and noting the extent to which they agree is a technique in qualitative research that helps to establish which one of the following? a. B. Dependability of measures; dependability is used instead of reliability for qualitative research since reliability is strongly associated with objective testing. Another potential advantage of using measures employed in previous research is much is often known about the validity of measures sued in previous research; especially if they have been widely used. - One major approach to studying validity of measures is to conduct statistical studies in which the results from administering a measure are correlated with other results. ie: anxiety and depression are closely correlated, so if results from a new anxiety measure fail to correlate with results of an established depression measure, the validity is called into question. - Another approach to studying validity is to have experts judge the measure. - For dependability in qualitative research, a consensus is usually taken to be more dependable than a single individual's judgment. - Dependability in qualitative research can also be improved though triangulation of measure - uses only one source but multiple measures. - Triangulation of data sources in qualitative research uses multiple sources but only one measure. - Prolonged engagement in the field is a method for assuring credibility - Quantitative -
