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Exam Study Guide 11/04/
Chapter 8 questions What role does each of the following play in transmission? o Dendrites- receive stimulation o Axons- pass the message on o Afferent nerves- extremely long nerves that extend form the central nervous system to every part of the body o Efferent nerves- extra long axons that send impulses and instructions from the central nervous system back to the muscles, glands, and other organs o Interneuron- short axons or none at all that organize and regulate transmissions between nerve cells o Hypothalamus- secretes hormones & connects everything (has nerves that extend through the brain) o Hippocampus- associated with memories What are the 3 types of methods for studying the brain? o Brain damage o Brain stimulation o Brain imaging How is brain damaged studied in humans? o We track problems caused by damage to different parts of the brain. They are studies of accients. If enough ppl are observed, it becomes possible to draw conclusions by keeping track of the specific problems caused by damage to different parts of the brain. How is brain damage studied in animals? o We actually do the damage and study the reaction from it What happens in brain stimulation? o We stimulate certain areas of the brain with electrodes and observe the response of the particpant. Depending on the area of the brain stimulated different responses occur. Ex: women who became depressed when electrode was stimulated for about 1 minute, and when turned off was completely happy again
Ex: Wilder Penfield performed brain surgery on patients while they were conscious and asked what they experienced when he stimulated various ares of their brains. Depending on where he placed his prode, his patients reported visions, sounds, dreams, and memory flashbacks Connected to stimulation: TMS- transcranial magnetic stimulation- Induces electrical responses in the brain using rapidly changing magnetic fields Used to temporarily “knock out” (turn off) areas of brain activity to see whether a particular part of the brain is essential for a psychological task TMS therapy helps modern patients with depression (video I watched) What are the four types of Brain imaging technologies used? o EEG o MEG o PET o fMRI o They are used to observe functioning directly What are each of them, how are they used, and what do they study? o Used to detect WHEN the brain is working: EEG- Electrodes are placed on the scalp to pick up electrical signals generated by the brain activity underneath MEG- used to detect magnetic indications of brain activity o Used to detect WHAT PARTS of the brain are working: PET- map of brain activity by following the location of a harmless radioactive tracer injected into the bloodstream fMRI- monitors magnetic pulses generated by oxygen in the blood to map where the brain is most active at a given moment What is the ARAS (Ascending reticular activating system)? o Connected to cerebral cortex and rest of brain: Part of the brain where the spine meets the base of the skull (brain stem) o Regulation of balance between arousal and calming by allowing information into the brain (Regulates the balance between inhibitory mechanisms and excitatory mechanisms) Sometimes the info channels are opened wide (allowing a lot of sensory stimulation to flow into the brain) and sometimes they are more closed down (limiting sensory stimulation)
Relevant traits: anxiety, fearfulness, sociability, sexuality, optimism Relevant for motivation Whitman murders at University of Texas in 1966: man with tumor near amygdala had desires to kill others, and he did, and wrote a letter asking for an autopsy to be done before he went out to kill people. Sure enough there was a tumor Tell us links with Frontal lobes and neocortex? o Links with self-control o Neocortex- outer layer of the brain (gray scrunched up matter) o Left frontal lobes more active when a person experiences pleasant emotions motivations to approach people and objects promote good feelings & dampen bad ones o Right frontal lobes unpleasant emotions here motivation to withdraw associated with disgust and fear o Somatic maker hypothesis- Emotions enable people to make decisions that maximize good outcomes and minimize bad ones and focus on what is really important Ex: Phineas Gage when his frontal cortex was damaged he couldn’t do this anymore What is capgras syndrome? o Where an individual loses their ability to recognize their friends and loved ones due to brain damage of the RIGHT frontal lobe What is the anterior cingulated linked to? o Corpus Calosum- connects the two halves of the brain
o Anterior cingulated- important for the experience of normal emotion The interaction of these two are important for controlling emotional responses and impulsive behavior Ex:Charles Whitman- the guy who had an impulse to kill his wife had his tumor in this are of the brain (affecting emotional responses and impulsive behavior) o Linked to the amygdala o Role in controlling emotional response and impulses What are the two main types of Psychosurgeries? o Prefrontal leucotomy- small lesion of frontal lobes o Lobotomy- larger lesions What happens when you do these surgeries (what do these surgeries affect; small vs large lesions), and why are they important in psychology? o Lab chips named Becky & Lucy- difficult to handle because they were easily frustrated and became vicious, so they surgically removed part of their frontal cortex The results: they became mellow chips Dr. Egas Moniz questions whether it would be effective to take out part of the frontal cortex in humans: so two years later her performed this operation on a human! It was the first prefrontal labatomy, and could be considered first psychosurgery that tried to alter personality: in which small areas of white matter behind each of the frontal lobes were deliberately damaged The surgery was successful in most cases, but as it became more popular the procedures became more and more drastic, in which whole sectors of the frontal lobe were scooped out. Some of them ended up much worse then before and were described as “just shells” of the people they once were. When people mess up these lobes they are messing with the ability to anticipate future negative outcomes and response emotionally to the possibility- another words: worrying So you will not be able to plan appropriately or make the right decisions about what to do o In today’s world we use medicines to help control this behavior: in the end it is a bad idea- when we make the decision that because the frontal lobe is associated with excessive worrying and neuroticism, such problems could be eliminated by severing or removing frontal lobes. What are neurotransmitters?
Serotonin depletion treated by SSRI’s- increasing serotonin in brain, makes you happier- anti-depressants Why are hormones produced? o They are produced in central location to affect other systems and organs- a biological chemical that affects the body in a location different from where the chemical is produced What is epinephrine and norepinephrine and what is it linked too? o Fight or flight & adrenaline o Response to stress- in which the brain is fully alert and concentrated on the threat What is oxytocin and what is it linked to? o Tend-and-befriend (people becoming bonded with each other- mother and child) What is testosterone linked too? o Higher in males o Linked to aggression, energizing functions, and sexuality o Related to many other behaviors in men (sociability, dominance, sexual experience, frustration) and women (unprovoked violent crime, sexual interest, sociability, impulsivity) o Males with more Trouble with authority, use of drugs and alcohol, many sexual partners, history of assault, and a general tendency towards excessive behavior They are also higher in stable extraversion (sociability, self-acceptance, and dominance), more restless energy, spend a lot of time thinking about concrete problems in the present, and become frustrated when they can’t get things done. They smile less, which makes them appear more dominant, more sex & more sex partners o Females with more Women in prison who committed violent criminal acts Lesbians o Females with less Less interested in sex What is cortisol linked to?
o Response to stress: (if you have high levels of stress, anxiety, & depression is linked to high levels of cortisol) Released in response to physical or psychological stress and helps prepare body for action Chronically high levels in people with severe stress, anxiety, and depression Probably an effect rather than a cause Low levels related to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), sensation seeking, impulsivity, not following the rules of society o Possibly due to abnormal responding to danger signals When you are stressed, you release more cortisol, but if you are injected with it you won’t become more stressed….one way street Chapter 9 Questions What is Behavior genetics? o The study of the relative importance of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. Genetic and environmental sources of variance- what role does genetics play, and what role does environment play? o they show us GENES MATTER! Heritability coefficient o Indicate genes matter o Illuminate etiology- comparision of if a disorder is linked to genes or not: findings are that some are connected but others aren’t o Identify shared verses non-shared environmental influences: growing up in the same house does not tend to make children similar to each other. Molecular genetics o Allels- different forms of the same gene Gene-environment interplay o Interactions: Genes and the environment interact. Neither one can do anything without the other. o Passive connections by shaping family environments?????
Women place higher value on economic security and prefer older mates o Mating strategies- differences in jealousy Men want many sexual partners for more chances of reproductive sucessess so they would be more jealous if their partners were to have sex with another man, and if they were to try new positions with that person Women desire monogamy and a stable relationship in order to gain a stable living situation So they would be jealous if their mate developed a deep emotional attachment to another female, or if they fell in love with that person Both point to the fact that our behaviors in relationships reflect what we both want/need Applications to individual differences o Variation is important if everyone was the same then life would be boring. Diversity is necessary for viability o Differential reactions to early environments: behavioral patterns evolved as reactions to particular environmental experiences o Evolved capacities for multiple strategies Several possible behavior strategies may have evolved o Frequency dependent strategies- psychopathy (frequency with which we see a trait is how often they are seen) Objections o Methodological approaches Backward speculation is difficult to test empirically Probably not wise to think that everytrait or behavior pattern has an adaptive advantage o Reprodutive instinct-
not everyone wants as many children as possible Response: people do not have to consciously try to do what is evolutionarily adaptive o Conservativism Imlications that the current behavioral order was inevitable and is unchangeable Response: this is scientifically irrelevant; just because something is natural does not mean it is good o Underestimate human flexibility People are more flexible than evolution and genetically determined behavior account for Response: acknowledges that we are evolved to behave flexibly and we can overcome innate urges o Underestimate role of social structure Many behaviors may be the result of responding to the social structure (not of evolution) Theoretical importance: how much human nature is determined by evolution and biology vs. society Practical importance: the world is changing, and therefore sex differences may also change Chapter 10 Questions Key concepts o What is Psychic determinism? The assumption that everything that happens in a person’s mind, and therefore everything that person thinks and does, also has a specific cause. This idea leaves no room for miracles, free will, or accidents o What are the three parts of the Internal structure and what do they each do? Id- irrational and emotional part of the mind (unconscious)
o Freud discovered: when patients talked about their problems sometimes by themselves was enough to help or even cure them o Talking about it helps: he believed that this worked because- making one’s thoughts and fears explicit by saying them out loud brings them into the open, where one’s conscious, rational mind can deal with them Interest in culture????? What are the two basic motivations in life? o Libido- life drive- sex drive, desire to procreate and have a relationship to others o Thantos- death drive- to destroy others, yourself and break things- self destructive behaviors such as drugs and alcohol What are the Doctrine of opposites? o Everything implies, even requires, it’s opposite: Life requires death, happiness requires sadness. One cannot exist without the other What are Freud’s Psychosexual development Stages? o Oral stage o Anal stage o Phallic Stage o Latency Stage o Genital Stage What is the Oral stage? o Oral stage Timing: birth to 18 months Physical focus: mouth, lips, and tongue Psychological theme: dependency Adult character type: overly dependent or overly independent
o Anal stage Timing: 18 months-3 years Physical focus: anus and organs of elimination (appropriate time & place to release feces) Psychological theme: self-control and obedience Adult character types: obsessive compulsive or anti- authority o Phallic Stage Timing: 3-5 years Phsyical focus: Penis (boys have one & girls don’t) Theme: Sexual idenity and identification Adult Character type: extreme sexual behavior- excessive promiscuity or none at all o Latency Stage Timing: 6 years to puberty Phsyical focus: none Theme: relationships with same sex peers Adult type: None (not much happens, small development of personality) o Genital stage Time: puberty onwards Physical focus: genitals Theme: creation and enhancement of life Adult type: Well adjusted and balance or non- heterosexual COMPARE THEM WITH ERICKSON”S THOERY!!
o To refuse to see the way it is in reality Ex: I did not get a 2 out of 10 on that quiz or they are really not sick or dead What is repression? o Thought or memory to make you realize something Ex: sexually abused as a child, and memories come back in some way in adulthood What is reaction formation? o People who strongly believe in something are caught actually doing it o Ex: public figure argues about some type of cause, antiprostitution What is projection? o Unconscious impulse o Angry- therapist feels the angry being projected on them What is Rationalization? o When a girl gives a guy the wrong number you make excuses and say they might have accidently gave it to them wrong What is intellectualication? o Talking around the emotion- you can talk about the emotion but you are not experiencing it o Normal people would say that someone died at war, and a soilder would say he had a category 8 wound What is displacement? o You may feel angry toward one object, but take it out on another object o Displacing the unacceptable emotion to another person What is sublimation? o Attention going to an older sibling- outshine by older sibling
Reaction is to become famous themselves Trying to get attention What are Parapraxes (Freudian slips)? o Saying or doing something you might accidently do that you might not want to (calling your teacher: mom- you want to be with your mom or call your new boyfriend by your ex’s name) Ex: you break something but you didn’t like it anyways and humor o NOTHING is accidental Forgetting-not coincidental, convenient that you forget- you didn’t want to do it anyways Slips of the tongue You meant to do these things on purpose What is the purpose of Humor? o To release unconscious tension- your laughing at the joke releases this tension (sexual joke- something you don’t openly talk about so you joke about it to release tension) o Good jokes- disguised impulses o Bad jokes- undisguised impulses (a joke that is meant to be funny in a light-hearted sort of way) Who were the Neo-Fruiedians? o Adler o Jung o Horney o Erikson What did Adler believe and contribute? o Adler thought that Freud focused too much on sex as the ultimate motivator and organizer of thought and behavior
o He also believed that certain basic conflicts arise at various stages of life- so this led him to develop his own version of Freud’s theory of psychological development in which he focused on the conflicts experienced at each stage and their possible outcomes instead of focusing on libido. First stage: Basic Trust vs Mistrust Corresponds to Freud’s Oral stage in that the dependent child learns whether needs and wants will be met, ignored, or overindulged Given the appropriate ratio of satisfaction and temporary frustraction the child develops hope (confidence that the needs will be met) 2 nd^ stage: Autonomy vs Shame and doubt corresponds to Freud’s Anal stage As the child begins to control bowels, learn language, and begins to receive orders from adult authority, and inevitable conflict arises: who’s in charge here? On one hand the adults pressure the child to obey but on the other the child wants to control his own life 3 rd^ stage: Initiative vs guilt corresponds to Freud’s phallic stage the child begins to anticipate and fantasize about life as an adult including sexual fantasies and plans to get ahead in life these can be good but if the adult doesn’t react to them well it can lead the child to feel guilty and to back off form taking initiative in their development towards adulthood 4 th^ stage: Industry vs Inferiory corresponds to freud’s latency period during which one should develop the skills and attitudes to succeed in the world of work and contribute to society 5 th^ stage: Identity vs Identity confusion Freud’s stages stop here, but erikson believes that you have more psychological development left in life As the adolescent strives to figure out who he is and what is and is not important, they choose values and goals that are consistent and personally meaningful and useful
Intimacy vs isolation: find an intimate life partner to share important experiences and further development rather then being isolated and lonely 6 th^ stage: Generativity vs Stagnation as a person’s position in life becomes firmly set, do they settle into passive comfort or begin to turn towards cocerns to the next generation? Basically instead of retirement, try to help develop the next generation 7 th^ stage: integrity vs despair One begins to face death does the person regret earlier mistakes and feel that they blew it or have they developed wisdom from their experiences? The real test is when they are 70 years old and up do they care about the next generations to come or not? What is Object relations theories and what are the core ideas? o Analysis of interpersonal relationships o Core ideas We can only relate to people via the images of them we hold in our minds, and these images do not always match reality Every relationship has a mix of satisfaction and frustration (pleaure and pain) Every relationship involves love and hate (express annoyance with us, criticize us, and frustrate us) Whole person splits into objects- sometimes we only like or love parts of other people (baby sees mother as just the breast, and we could love someone for their wallet & looks, not as a whole) Tensions over contradictions- many complications in relationships (you want to be with someone so you get frustrated and angry when you can’t, you envy the power they have over you if they are attractive, you fear loosing the person and it is greater the more desirable they seem, and you may feel guilty over all of these reactions because if you expressed them the relationship could end o Klein Splitting- divide important love objects into two parts, one good and one bad Paranoid position- they wish to destroy the bad part because they fear being destroyed by it Depressive position- they wish to worship and protect the good part because they fear losing it
