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Overview
Unit XI tackles the enduring question and challenge of how to define and measure intelligence. The unit reviews the theories of Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, and Robert Sternberg and the brain struc- tures involved in activities requiring intelligence. Next follows an explanation of the origin and rise of intelligence testing and the methods researchers uti- lize to ensure reliability and validity of tests. The role genetics and environment play in intelligence and the traits of those who demonstrate extreme high or extreme low scores on intelligence assessments are also covered. The unit concludes by considering the roles gender, race, and ethnicity play in intelligence.
Modules
60 Introduction to Intelligence
61 Assessing Intelligence
62 The Dynamics of Intelligence
63 Studying Genetic and Environmental
Influences on Intelligence
64 Group Differences and the Question of Bias
Testing and Individual Differences
Unit XI
Tip
Visit the College Board
Website and Review
Take a moment to visit the AP®^ Psychology page of the College Board® website to look at the Course Description. There you will find a list of all of the AP®^ Psychology topics and learning objectives, along with the approximate percentage of the multiple choice portion of the test that will cover those topics. As you begin to review and prepare for the exam, group your vocabulary cards from previous units into topics and set up a schedule of review that takes into account the greater emphasis on certain topics. For instance, from the Course Description you can see that States of Consciousness, Unit V, makes up about 2–4% of the test while Social Psychology, Unit XIV, accounts for about 8–10% of the exam. Obviously you only have so many hours in the day, and per- haps other AP®^ courses you are preparing for, so it makes sense to allocate more vocabulary review time to the sections that make up more of the test.
Module 60 Introduction to Intelligence
Before You Read
Module Summary Module 60 discusses the difficulty of defining intelligence and presents arguments for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability, as Charles Spear- man proposed. Various theories of intelligence, including those of Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg are presented and compared. The four components of emotional intel- ligence are explained and the relationship between intelligence and brain structure and function is described. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms and names you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each.
Key Terms Key Names
intelligence savant syndrome Charles Spearman intelligence test grit L. L. Thurstone general intelligence ( g ) emotional intelligence Howard Gardner factor analysis Robert Sternberg
While You Read
Answer the following questions/prompts. 60-
1. Why is it difficult to define intelligence? How would your definition differ from that given in the text? What would you add or delete from the text’s definition? Answers will vary but should include the idea that psychologists debate whether intelligence is one aptitude or many, linked to cognitive speed, or even neurologically measurable.
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3. Explain how the quote by Bill Gates below relates to the work of Thurstone, Spearman, and Gardner. “You have to be careful, if you’re good at something, to make sure you don’t think you’re good at other things that you aren’t necessarily so good at... Because I’ve been very successful at (software development) people come in and expect that I have wisdom about topics that I don’t.”—Bill Gates (1998) Thurstone: Spearman: Gardner: 4. Summarize Sternberg’s three intelligences. 5. Discuss how Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence agrees with Gardner’s theory. In what ways do Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories differ? Thurstone thought there were seven clusters of primary intelligence, so Bill Gates’ quote would relate to his work in that Gates is agreeing that just because we are intelligent in one cluster, doesn’t mean we are intelligent in all the others. Gates’ quote would conflict with Spearman’s idea that we all have a general intelligence ( g ). Spearman found that those who score high in one area also score higher in other areas and that g underlies all intel- ligent behavior. He would argue that Gates IS intelligent and has wisdom in all topics if he has the strong intelligence in software developing. Gardner, like Thurstone, would agree with Gates’ statement that intelligence in one area doesn’t necessarily transfer to all areas. Sternberg’s triarchic theory, according to this text, is composed of: - analytical intelligence (assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems with a single right answer; grades in school) - creative intelligence (reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas) - practical intelligence (required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined and with many possible solutions; shrewd ability to manage oneself, one’s tasks, and other people) Sternberg and Gardner agree that there are differing types of intelligence and both recognize that knowing how to work with others—referred to as interpersonal in Gardner’s theory and practical in Sternberg’s—is a mark of intelligence. They differ in that Sternberg groups many of Gardner’s into just three categories. For instance, both inter- and intrapersonal might be found under Sternberg’s practical intelligence category.
While You Read 329 60-
1. List and elaborate on the four components of emotional intelligence. a. b. c. d. 2. How might each of the components listed above help or hinder someone involved in an unwanted break up of a relationship? 60- 1. Summarize the statistical information on the connection between brain size and intelligence. Perceiving emotions (recognizing them in faces, music, and stories) Understanding emotions (predicting them, and understanding how they change and blend) Managing emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations) Using emotions (for adaptive or creative thinking) Answers will vary. Recent studies indicate a +.33 correlation between brain size (adjusted for body size) and intelligence scores.
Module 61 Assessing Intelligence
Before You Read
Module Summary Module 61 discusses the history of intelligence testing and distinguishes between apti- tude and achievement tests. The meaning of standardization is explained, and validity and reliability in relation to testing is covered. The normal curve is also described. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms and names you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each.
Key Terms Key Names
mental age standardization Francis Galton Stanford-Binet normal curve Alfred Binet intelligence quotient (IQ) reliability Louis Terman achievement test validity David Wechsler aptitude test content validity Wechsler Adult Intelligence predictive validity Scale (WAIS)
While You Read
Answer the following questions/prompts. 61-
1. Explain how Francis Galton attempted to measure intelligence. Discuss which of his assertions were disproved and which have shown a lasting impact on the study of intelligence. Galton thought to measure “natural ability” by assessing reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, and body proportion of more than 10,000 visitors of the 1884 London Exposition. He was unable to show correlations. He did give us some statistical techniques that are still in use and the phrase nature and nur- ture.
332 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence
2. Discuss the events leading up to Alfred Binet’s commission to develop intelligence tests for French children. 3. What components did Binet emphasize in his assessment of intelligence? 4. Explain the relationship between mental age and chronological age. 5. What were Binet’s hopes and fears regarding the implementation of his test? 6. How did Binet believe that children could improve their intelligence scores? 7. How did Lewis Terman revise Binet’s original tests for use with American children? 8. Compare and contrast Binet’s and Terman’s ideas on the importance of intelligence test results. France instated compulsory education for all children around the turn of the twentieth century and many seemed unable to do the work. Rather than rely on the subjective reports of teachers, the French govern- ment commissioned Binet to devise an objective assessment of intelligence. Binet emphasized reasoning and problem solving. His idea of mental age was the level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age. The average 9-year-old should have a mental age of 9. He hoped it would improve children’s education but feared it would be used to label children and limit their opportunities. He recommended “mental orthopedics” that would help develop their attention span and self-discipline. He added items, established new age norms, and extended the upper end of the test’s range from teenagers to “superior adults.” Binet did not believe his intelligence test measured inborn intelligence, but Terman, initially at least, did believe that his revision of Binet’s test took into account the “inequalities of children in original endowment.”
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1. Give an example of a test you have taken that was a. an achievement test: b. an aptitude test : 2. Discuss the components and subsets of David Wechsler’s intelligence test. How does it differ from the Stanford-Binet? 61- 1. What population should be used in order to standardize the AP®^ Psychology exam you will be taking? After determining your population, explain how the exam can be standardized. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. The WAIS includes 15 subtests, including similarities, vocabulary, block design, and letter-number sequencing, among others. It is different from the Stanford-Binet in that it yields separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. The AP®^ Psychology Exam is designed to assess your performance in a college-level introduction to psychology course; thus, it should be standardized using a population of freshman or sophomore col- lege students taking introduction to psychology in college. The same test should be given to the college students and the AP®^ students and the scores can then be meaningfully compared.
2. Draw and label a normal curve of intelligence scores in the space below. Include three standard deviations above and below the mean and the percentages that fall within one, two and three standard deviations. Refer to Figure 61.2. when finished to check your work. 3. Why is the normal curve important to standardized testing? 4. Define the Flynn effect and describe the explanations that have been suggested for its occurrence. 61- 1. Why is reliability a key consideration in test development? What are two specific methods researchers utilize to measure the reliability of a test? While You Read 335 Drawing should match Figure 61.2. It describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. The Flynn effect shows that intelligence test performance has been improving since the 1930s. The cause has been a mystery, but people think it may be due partly to better nutrition, more education, more stimulating environments, less childhood diseases, and/or smaller families. In developing a test, it is important that it yield consistent results. To measure the reliability of a test, researchers use the test-retest method or the split-half method.
2. Alfred Binet referred to children’s actual age in years as their age and their performance ability level as their age. 3. The rising average intelligence test score over the last century is referred to as the . 4. The Advanced Placement®^ exam you will take this year is an example of an ___________________________ test. 5. The researcher credited with adapting and revising Binet’s original test for use with American children is a. Francis Galton. b. Charles Darwin. c. Louis Terman. d. William Stern. e. David Wechsler. 6. A test-taker is asked to use four white and red shaded geometric blocks to make patterns. The tester is most likely taking the a. Stanford-Binet. b. MMPI. c. Stern-Terman. d. WAIS. e. Achievement Test. 7. A researcher who wishes to be sure her personality test for teen introversion is accepted in the field initially gives it to a representative sample of teens to establish a base line performance score. This researcher is in the process of a. making the test reliable. b. establishing the aptitude quotient. c. validating the test. d. establishing the achievement quotient. e. standardizing the test. 8. Draw and label the normal curve of intelligence scores in the space below. Once finished, use it to answer questions 9 and 10. After You Read 337 chronological mental Flynn effect achievement 0.1% (^) 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 0.1% 55 70 85 100 Wechsler intelligence score 115 130 145 2% 2% Number of scores 68% 95% About 95 percent of all people fall within 30 points of 100. About 68 percent of people score within 15 points above or below 100.
9. According to your normal curve from #8, a score of 115 is higher than what percentage of scores? a. 68% b. 95% c. 2% d. 84% e. 81.5% 10. According to your normal curve from #8, approximately 99% of scores fall between which two scores on an intelligence test? a. 55- b. 70- c. 55- d. 145 and beyond e. 115- 11. Gwen is attempting to produce a solid intelligence test that will give dependable and consistent results each time it is taken. She gives her prototype test to one group then retests them one week later. Gwen is attempt- ing to prove the test’s a. reliability. b. validity. c. standardization. d. Flynn effect. e. normality. 12. Cynthia is preparing for her semester exam in biology. Her instructor has covered 7 units and Cynthia expects to see material from all 7 units on the exam. When over one-half of the exam deals with the life cycle of the Amazon tree frog, Cynthia is upset. Her dissatisfaction with the exam comes primarily due the exam’s lack of a. predictive validity. b. aptitude validity. c. content validity. d. split-half reliability. e. test-retest reliability. 338 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence
340 Module 62 The Dynamics of Intelligence
2. How did the longitudinal studies begun in the 1920s challenge the findings of cross-sectional evidence discussed earlier? 3. Explain how our crystallized and fluid intelligence differ as we age. 4. List several tasks and skills which older people perform better than younger individuals. 5. Explain the evidence that supports the claim that intelligence remains stable over the life span. 62- 1. Discuss the two components required before a label of intellectual disability can be applied to a child. Psychologists retested the same cohort over a period of years and found that until late in life, intelligence remained stable—on some tests it even increased. Crystallized intelligence—our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests— increases up to old age. Fluid intelligence—our ability to reason speedily and abstractly as when solving novel logic problems— decreases beginning in the twenties and thirties, slowly up to age 75 or so, then more rapidly, especially after age 85. Older adults show increased social reasoning, taking multiple perspectives, appreciating knowledge lim- its, and offering helpful wisdom. By age 4, children’s performance on intelligence tests begins to predict their adolescent and adult scores; the consistency of scores over time increases with the age of the child. In Scotland, Deary et al. conducted longitudinal studies on over 87,000 people. Around age 11, they were all given an intelligence test, and 65 years later those results were compared to a retesting of the 542 survivors of the original test. The correla- tion was significant. A person must have both a low intelligence test score (two standard deviations below the mean) and difficulty adapting to the normal demands of independent living.
While You Read 341
2. What is one of the challenges of creating strict cutoffs for labeling an individual as intellectually disabled? 3. Explain how the Flynn effect may be correlated with changes in independent living for those with an intellec- tual disability. 4. Discuss Lewis Terman’s work with his “Termites.” What were his findings? 5. Explain how recent studies of math and verbal “whiz kids” support Terman’s findings.
After You Read
Module 62 Review Select the best answer to see if you have mastered the basics.
1. In an experiment to test the cognitive abilities of various age groups, a researcher forms four groups of equal numbers of participants. Those aged 15–25 are in Group 1, 26–35 in Group 2, 36–45 in Group 3, and 46–55 in Group 4. The researcher is utilizing which method to test his hypothesis? a. naturalistic observation b. cross-sectional c. case study d. longitudinal e. survey A strict cutoff of an intelligence test score can be an arbitrary marker. What is to distinguish a person who scores a 68 from one who scores a 70? Over time, as tests are periodically restandardized, the mean and standard deviation change. As such, a person who scored near 70 on an earlier version of the test might now score 63 on the same test, and two people with the same ability level could thus be classified differently based on when they were tested. As boundaries shift, more people become eligible for special education services. The Termites were the people in Lewis Terman’s study group over seven decades. These were high- scoring children who he followed longitudinally. Most of the Termites went on to attain high levels of education and became doctors, lawyers, and professors, for example. A recent study of precocious youths who aced the math SAT exam at age 13 were at age 33 twice as likely to have patents as were those in the bottom quarter of the top 1 percent. Compared with the math aces, verbal whiz kids were more likely to have become humanities professors or written a novel.
Module 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Before You Read
Module Summary Module 63 discusses the evidence for a genetic influence on intelligence and explains what is meant by heritability. The module also discusses the evidence for environmental influences on intelligence. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following term and name you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each.
Key Term Key Name
heritability Carol Dweck
While You Read
Answer the following questions/prompts. 63-
1. In Module 14 (Unit III), the concept of heritability was discussed. Refresh your memory by defining heritabil- ity in your own words. 2. Explain why the heritability of intelligence can range from 50 percent to 80 percent. Answers will vary. Heritability is a measure of the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes. The range indicates the amount of role the environment plays in explaining those differences.
344 Module 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
3. How do you account for heritability in your own levels of intelligence? 4. Using the data presented in Figure 63.1, explain why siblings raised together would have a lower correlation of intelligence scores than fraternal twins raised together. 5. Discuss the findings of behavior geneticists with regard to the heritability of intelligence in adoptive children and their families. 63- 1. Compare the varying effects of early enrichment on the development of intelligence. In what instances does early intervention contribute to intelligence and in what instances do we see little or no impact? Heritability is not a measure of how much of your individual intelligence is due to your genes—it is a measure of how much the difference between your intelligence and others’ intelligence can be attributed to genes. Fraternal twins are genetically no more similar than biological siblings. However, fraternal twins do share identical womb environments and likely very similar childhood environments, so their intelligence scores would be more correlated with each other. During childhood, the intelligence test scores of adoptive siblings correlate modestly. Over time, adopted children accumulate experience in their differing adoptive families; however, genetic influences become more apparent as we accumulate life experience so mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane with age. Among those economically impoverished, environmental conditions can depress cognitive development. Researchers trained caregivers to play language-fostering games with 11 infants and by 22 months of age, infants could name more than 50 objects and body parts. Although malnutrition, sensory depriva- tion, and social isolation can retard normal brain development, there is no environmental recipe for fast forwarding a normal infant into a genius.
