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Here are a few general points to remember when you are writing your assignments. As well as using appropriate language and aiming for 100% accuracy in your grammar and vocabulary, you should also remember that you're writing for someone else, and hence the importance of punctuation, sentences, paragraphs and overall structure, all of which help the reader.
AVOID SOME ASPECTS OF INFORMAL ENGLISH
don't (do not!) use contractions (eg it's, he'll, it'd etc): always use the full form (it is/has, he will, it would/had). don't use colloquial language or slang (eg kid, a lot of/lots of, cool) always write as concisely as you can, with no irrelevant material or “waffle”. generally avoid "phrasal verbs" (e.g. get off, get away with, put in etc): instead, use one word equivalents. avoid common but vague words and phrases such as get, nice, thing. Your writing needs to be more precise. avoid overuse of brackets; don’t use exclamation marks or dashes; avoid direct questions; don’t use “etc”. always use capital letters appropriately and never use the type of language used in texting!
See the practice exercises at the end of the guide.
STRUCTURE YOUR WRITING CAREFULLY
make sure you write in complete sentences (see Guide 1.34). divide your writing up into paragraphs (see Guide 1.35). use connecting words and phrases to make your writing explicit and easy to follow (see Guide 1.39). check your grammar and spelling carefully (see Guide 1.42).
MAKE YOUR WRITING FORMAL AND IMPERSONAL
avoid too much personal language (I, my, we etc). Some tutors prefer you to avoid it completely. Never use emotive language; be objective rather than subjective.(See Guide 1.22). avoid being too dogmatic and making sweeping generalisations. It is usually best to use some sort of “hedging” language (see below) and to qualify statements that you make. you should consistently use evidence from your source reading to back up what you are saying and reference this correctly. avoid sexist language, such as chairman, mankind. Don’t refer to “the doctor” as he; instead, make the subject plural and refer to them as they. Avoid he/she, herself/himself etc. use nominalisation; that is, try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones. For example, instead of Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned. Write: The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.
In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so don’t be too ambitious, particularly when you’re starting to write.
HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what you’re writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than assertive, you should:
avoid overuse of first person pronouns (I, we, my, our) use impersonal subjects instead (It is believed that ..., it can be argued that ...) use passive verbs to avoid stating the ‘doer’ (Tests have been conducted) use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly. These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language. use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re saying. use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.
How to avoid personal language
There are three main ways of doing this:
use a passive rather than an active verb
use an impersonal phrase such as it is believed make words such as the essay, this section etc the subject of the sentence
Passive verbs
These are often used in introductions to essays or to chapters or sections in a longer piece of work when you are stating what the writing will deal with and how it is structured.
Instead of:
In my essay I will discuss the role of the ombudsman. (=active verb)
You could write:
In this essay the role of the ombudsman will be discussed. (=passive verb)
Instead of:
I have divided the chapter into three sections.
Better:
The chapter is divided into three sections.
Impersonal phrases
The subject of these phrases is “it”; for example:
It can be imagined that ...
It may be argued that ...
It is widely held that ...
It should be clear from how you phrase the surrounding language whether or not you are actually expressing a personal opinion here.
Change the subject
As an alternative to using passive verbs in introductions etc, you can change the subject. For example:
Instead of:
In this essay I will consider the question of immigration control.
You could write:
This essay considers the question of immigration control.
Instead of:
In Chapter 2 I will outline the main causes of the problem.
Alternatively:
Chapter 2 outlines the main causes of the problem.
The most common mistakes made by students are:
not to include an introduction at all to include an introduction, but one which is unrecognizable as such to include too much background/historical information in the introduction to make the introduction too long
A good introduction will:
show that you are going to answer the question or complete the task show that you understand the issues and their implications show how you are going to do this by indicating the structure of your answer and making clear the main areas that you are going to write about (your plan). show evidence that you have carried out some research by making a reference to one of your sources be totally relevant
A sentence is a group of words, almost always containing at least one subject and one verb, which expresses a complete thought or idea. Sentences always start with a capital letter, and always end with a full stop, a question mark or, in more informal writing, an exclamation mark.
Why are sentences important?
In more formal written English clear structure is of paramount importance, and sentences are the foundation to achieving this. Unlike in spoken English, where the listener’s understanding is greatly aided by intonation, facial expressions and body language, and where repetition, vagueness and uncompleted ideas are perfectly acceptable, in order to express yourself in formal written English you must write in clear, concise, complete, well-punctuated sentences.
What errors are made in writing sentences?
There are four types of errors made when writing sentences:
Sentences are incomplete
Look at the following example:
We decided to go out for a walk. Although it was raining.
The second sentence here is incomplete, as it does not make sense by itself; it is in fact part of the first sentence. These are often referred to as sentence fragments.
Sentences are incorrectly punctuated
This is usually a question of poor use of commas. A fairly common problem are what are called run-on or comma-spliced sentences. This is when the writer separates two or more individual simple sentences with a comma, when what is needed is a linking word such as and, but, or however (See Guide 1.39), as semi- colon ( ; ) or a colon ( : ), or separate sentences altogether.
For example:
I went to a party last night, I left early because I didn’t feel well.
Should be:
I went to a party last night but left early because I didn’t feel well.
Alternatively, commas may not be used at all, or used in the wrong place.
Sentences are too long
The longer your sentence, the more control you need over punctuation, linking words, and use of pronouns. If you use any of these badly, then your reader will become confused. The last thing you want is for your tutor, getting through a pile of 50 essays at midnight, to have to start reading a sentence three or four times to try and make sense of it. It is therefore usually recommended that you write in fairly short sentences, maybe a maximum of around 20-25 words or a couple of lines. As you get more practice and your writing improves, you can start to make your sentences longer.
Sentences are too short
Don’t go to the opposite extreme and write lots of very short sentences of just a few words. Your writing will become “bitty”, and again will become tiring for the reader. Occasional short sentences can be very effective to emphasise a point, but don’t put lots of them together.
There is more detail on these four points later in this guide.
Types of sentences
Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause is a group of grammatically-related words including a verb and a subject (though sometimes is the subject is implied). Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or more clauses. In more complex sentences there is always a main clause, together with one or more relative or subordinate clauses. And getting even more technical, clauses can be finite or non-finite. Finite clauses are based on verbs which indicate tense, such as “saw” or “will go”, whereas non-finite clauses are based on infinitives (the base form of the verb, such as “consider”) or participles (for example, “taking”).
Simple sentences
Simple sentences contain just one finite clause and express just one idea or provide just one piece of information.
They can be very short:
I passed the test.
Or much longer:
Living only 3km away from the University on a main bus route, he was able to get to his lecture in just 15 minutes.
In this second example, 24 words long, the first clause is non-finite (living), while the second is finite (was able to). Although a longer sentence, it still just expresses one piece of information.
Compound sentences
These sentences contain two or more simple sentences, or independent clauses, joined by conjunctions such as or, but or and or by a semi-colon or a colon.
They can have one subject and two verbs:
Birmingham City University is a modern university and is spread over several campuses. Birmingham is the second biggest city in the UK; it is situated in the centre of the country.
Or two subjects (or a repeated subject) and two verbs:
I decided to have a gap year before starting my degree course, but most of my friends went straight to university. It was the best concert I had ever been to: Tom Waits sang magnificently.
Remember not to separate the two parts of these sentences with just a comma.
Complex sentences
Complex sentences consist of two or more clauses, but unlike compound sentences in which the clauses are “equal” and can be independent, in this type of sentence they are not equal; there is a main clause, a simple sentence which can be independent, with other clauses dependent or subordinate on it. These clauses do not make complete sense by themselves and are joined to the main clause by linking words or phrases such as the conjunctions although, because, when, if etc. They have one finite verb and their function is to give reasons, conditions, concessions, times of action etc.
An example:
If England keep on playing in the same manner, they won’t win the World Cup.
Here, the first clause (If England ...), although the longer of the two, is dependent on the second clause, which is the main one. If England keep on playing in the same manner doesn’t make complete sense by itself, whereas they won’t win the World Cup does. The second part, therefore, is clearly the more important piece of information, while the first part is just one of the conditions, or in this cases reasons, for saying this.
Other examples:
Although the workers have been given a 7% pay rise, they are still not happy with their situation. We left for the airport two hours earlier than usual because the baggage handlers were threatening strike action.
Your aim should be to use a variety of sentences in your writing:
Short simple sentences grab the reader’s attention and add emphasis. Compound sentences can emphasise balance and parallel ideas. Complex sentences show what information depends on what other information.
Complex sentences can often be written “the other way round”:
If I win the lottery, I’m going to retire.
Sentences of this type have at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been merged together instead of being properly connected. The length of a sentence has nothing to do with whether a sentence is a run-on or not; being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even a very short sentence:
It’s raining, take you umbrella.
An extremely long sentence, on the other hand, might contain a lot of waffle, but it can still be otherwise sound structurally.
When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).
It’s raining, so take your umbrella.
Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances:
a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in the prior independent clause:
This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right away.
(We could put a full stop where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon might also work there.)
b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression (conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.
Mr. McGrath has sent his four children to independent schools, however, he has sacrificed his health working day and night in his factory.
(Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a full stop — and started a new sentence — or a semicolon.)
c. When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects it to the first independent clause.
This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.
(Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is a run-on sentence. We need a full stop where that comma now stands.)
Most of those computers in the Learning Centre are broken already, this proves my point about British computer manufacturers.
Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected — a run-on. Use a full stop to cure this sentence.
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of connected sentences which develops one new topic, idea or theme. They are the “building blocks” of your writing, dividing it into easy-to-follow, comprehensible parts.
Essays are usually made up entirely of paragraphs; reports or other types of more technical writing will be written in sections, but within the sections there will be paragraphs as well as bullet points, lists, figures etc.
How long should a paragraph be?
As noted above, a paragraph needs to develop an idea or new aspect of an argument, and it is impossible to do this in just a sentence or two. It is usually recommended, therefore, that in typical student writing a paragraph should be a minimum of five or six sentences. It shouldn’t normally be shorter than this, but may be longer, depending on the overall length of the writing (the longer the writing, the longer the paragraphs can be: books may contain some very long paragraphs).
The most common mistake made in student writing is to make paragraphs too short. If you just write a sentence or two, two or three lines, and then start what looks like a new paragraph, it leaves a bad impression. Your writing may tend to look, and read, more like a series of notes or a list of simple points, possibly indicating that you have not thought through the ideas and have not developed them sufficiently.
Alternatively, it may just mean putting some of these fragments together to make one paragraph, as long as they are linked. Don’t put unrelated ideas or information together in a paragraph. A typical 1.5 or double spaced page would normally contain just 2-3 paragraphs.
Don’t go to the opposite extreme and make your paragraphs too long. Over-long paragraphs make your writing difficult to follow and indicate that you are probably not in control of your ideas. And remember that one paragraph = one point, so if your essay just contains three or four paragraphs, this may mean just three or four ideas.
What is the structure of a paragraph?
It would be wrong to say that all paragraphs must follow a set structure; this would make your writing very mechanical, boring to read and would hinder your flexibility in answering the specific question. Instead, paragraphs need to contain some, or all, of the following components in order to sufficiently develop the point:
some sort of “topic sentence” or introduction stating what the paragraph is about. This would normally, but not always, come at the beginning of the paragraph.
explanation or definition of any terms which may be unclear. evidence for any assertions you make: references to the sources you have used; examples, data, statistics, illustrations etc.
evaluation of this evidence or data; comparison or contrast with other information; analysis of causes and reasons; examination of effects and consequences; discussion of issues raised.
awareness of the implications of any of the above.
drawing of conclusions if appropriate
Your paragraphs should always be coherent, with the sentences linked together (see Guide 1.39). The end of the paragraph may link back to the introduction to show how the argument has developed, and may also link forward to the following paragraph. And particularly in shorter pieces, you may want to make regular reference to the specific question you are answering.
How to separate paragraphs
You must make it clear when one paragraph ends and a new one begins. Traditionally, you would “indent” the first line of the new paragraph, start it a few spaces in. Nowadays, most people leave a line space between paragraphs, without indenting the first line: this is probably the easiest thing to do. Remember that if you are double spacing your writing already, you’ll need to put in an extra space. Don’t mix the two possibilities.
Sample paragraphs
A
Irrigation schemes are a vital source of food production in most developing countries. Currently it is estimated that between 35% of world food is produced by irrigation (Bos 1992) and in parts of South East Asia where rice is the staple crop, up to 60% of food is irrigated (Yudelman 1994). While it is acknowledged that the role of small scale irrigation in development and rural food security is important, the medium and large scale sector should not be ignored for important reasons of urban and national food security (Elahi 1992). FAO have estimated that the annual global growth rate for gross agricultural production should be 3.8% most of which will have to come from new or rehabilitated irrigation schemes (Bos 1992).
(If a little bland, this has an introductory sentence that gives the theme of the paragraph followed by sentences that keep to the theme but enlarge on it, whilst debating the pro's and con's of small and large scale irrigation).
Source: http://www.uea.ac.uk/menu/acad_depts/dev/keyskills/cognitive/paragraphs.htm
B
From P. Harvey, Health Psychology, Longman, London 1988
(1) While many cancers are both treatable and curable, the nature of the treatment process may have
could change completely what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions, particularly in longer pieces of writing.
Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected together with this little word.
There follows a list of words and phrases that can be used. The list is not exhaustive, and BE CAREFUL: although grouped together, none is totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can also vary; this is where your reading and dictionary come in.
Listing Giving examples Generalising first, second, third for example in general first, furthermore, finally for instance generally to begin, to conclude as follows: on the whole next that is as a rule Reinforcement in this case for the most part also namely in most cases furthermore in other words usually moreover Result/consequence Highlighting what is more so in particular in addition therefore particularly besides as a result/consequence especially above all accordingly mainly as well (as) consequently Reformulation in the same way because of this/that in other words not only ... but also thus rather Similarity hence to put it more simply equally for this/that reason Expressing an alternative likewise so that alternatively similarly in that case rather correspondingly under these circumstances on the other hand in the same way Deduction the alternative is Transition to new point then another possibility would be now, in other words Contrast as far as x is concerned in that case instead with regard/reference to otherwise conversely as for ... this implies that ... on the contrary it follows that if so/not in contrast turning to Stating the obvious in comparison Summary obviously Concession (sth unexpected) in conclusion clearly however to conclude naturally even though in brief of course however much to summarise as can be expected nevertheless overall surely still therefore after all yet
Here are just a few examples of some of the words in action:
REINFORCEMENT
Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than laptops; furthermore , they are more flexible.
RESULT/CONSEQUENCE
Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result , sales increased by 15%.
GENERALISING
On the whole, his speech was well received, despite some complaints from new members.
CONTRAST
The South East of the UK often has the coldest weather in the winter. Conversely , the North West of Scotland frequently has the mildest temperatures.
CONCESSION
It was a very expensive holiday, the weather was bad and the people weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless , we would probably go back to the same place.
Language of comparison and contrast
Look at the following examples of the type of language which you may find in this type of writing (source: http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/page007a.htm).
Introductory Sentences: Differences
X is different from Y in a number of respects. There are a number of important differences between X and Y. X differs from Y in a number of important ways. Smith (2003) found distinct differences between X and Y.
Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they ......
Introductory Sentences: Similarities
The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain. The mode of processing used by the right brain is comparable in complexity to that used by the left brain. The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone. Both X and Y generally take place in a "safe environment".
There are a number of similarities between X and Y. Numerous studies have compared the brain cells in man and animals and found that the cells are essentially identical.
Comparison within one sentence
In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies.
Oral societies tend to be very much anchored in the present, whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past.
Women's brains process language simultaneously in the two sides of the brain, while men tend to process it in the left side only.
Comparison within one sentence (comparative forms)
Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board. Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed. Further, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills. The corpus callosum, a part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres, may be more/less extensive in women.
Women are more/less likely than men to suffer aphasia when the front part of the brain is damaged. Adolescents are less likely to be put to sleep by alcohol than adults.
Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men. Men learned the route in fewer trials and made fewer errors than did women.
Comparison across two sentences
It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. By contrast/in contrast , many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth.
Tests show that women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. On the other hand , men usually perform better on tests that require the ability to mentally rotate an image in order to solve a problem.
It is very important that you recognize which type of essay questions are looking for some sort of judgement, and then to be able to construct an effective, convincing argument in your answer. A major cause of complaint from tutors is that students at all levels do not do this very well, and make their writing descriptive rather than argumentative. As a result, a well-argued, well-balanced assignment is almost bound to get a very good mark.
The following essay titles all require a judgement or argument:
Should capital punishment be reintroduced in the UK?
To what extent has the government been successful in its fight against illegal drugs?
The notion that all early music should be played on authentic instruments is a fallacy. Discuss.
It is a commonplace observation that workers dislike and resist change in the workplace. How far do you think this is a rational response to their economic position and how far simply a result of the mismanagement of change?
If you were to write a very general essay, for example, about capital punishment, without answering the specific question asked, your mark is going to be low. Instead, what you need to do is:
decide basically what your opinion/standpoint is on the question, either from your own experience, from what you have covered on your course, or from additional reading on the subject.
think what the main points of your argument would be. do extensive reading to find evidence to back up your points, and at the same time note down counter- arguments and contradictory evidence. There is always more than one side to an argument, and it is very important in a piece of academic writing to show that you are aware of these different opinions. Your approach must be balanced, not one-sided.
structure your answer carefully. You should state what your conclusion will be right at the start in your introduction; then present both, or all, sides of the argument in a logical, coherent manner, showing clearly which side you stand on by the specific use of language (see below) and use of appropriate examples and evidence; and finally include a well-developed conclusion which draws all the strands together andmakes completely clear where you stand. In an argumentative essay the conclusionis probably the most important part, so don’t make it too short.
What is an appropriate position to take?
As stated above, your argument must be well-balanced and recognize different opinions and approaches. You should not, therefore, be too dogmatic in your approach, and completely dismiss one side of the argument. At the same time, you should not “sit on the fence” and take an indecisive approach, as this may be interpreted as you not having an opinion, or simply not knowing. (In terms of pure argument, you don’t necessarily have to completely agree with what you are saying).
Sample piece of argumentative writing
Read the following very short argumentative essay and go through the accompanying analysis
Discuss the funding of childcare provision in the UK
1 Recent changes in government priorities have seen a reduction in financial support for parents who use childcare. This is occurring at a time when there is increasing social and financial pressure on parents, particularly mothers, to work. The issue of childcare and working mothers has been the subject of dispute for some time. Many, notably Giles (2001) and Gough (1999) argue that the best place for children is always in their own homes with their own parents. However, it is my contention that there are many advantages to be had from using childcare and the government should provide more financial assistance to parents who do so.
2 Pollock (2000) argues that children who attend childcare centres at an early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child interaction. These children, so this argument goes, may be educationally disadvantaged later in life. However, childcare centres may actually assist children in their early learning. They give children an opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social skills at an early age. Indeed, a whole range of learning occurs in childcare centres.
3 Another argument against the use of childcare facilities (Vaughan 2001) is that children can be emotionally deprived in these facilities compared to the home. This argument assumes that the best place for children is to be at their parents', especially mothers', side for twenty four hours a day. It claims that children's emotional development can be damaged when they are left in childcare facilities. However,
parents and children need to spend sometime apart. Moreover, children become less dependent on their parents and parents themselves are less stressed and more effective care-givers when there are periods of separation. In fact, a recent study conducted by MCC (2003) indicates that the parent-child relationship can in fact be improved by the use of high-quality childcare facilities.
4 It could further be asserted that the government and the economy as a whole cannot afford the enormous cost involved in supporting childcare for working parents. However, working parents actually contribute to the national economy. They are able to utilise their productive skills and pay income tax, while non-working parents can become a drain on the tax system through dependent spouse and other rebates.
5 In conclusion, government support for childcare services assists individual families and is important for the economic well-being of the whole nation.
Paragraph 1 This is the introduction, which clearly states the main premise in the final sentence:
However, it is my contention that ... Note that two exponents of the counter-argument are acknowledged.
Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 These paragraphs all follow a similar pattern. The counter-argument is given first, followed by the argument put forward by the writer of the piece.
The counter-argument is “weakened” or “problematized” by phrases such as:
so this argument goes This argument assumes ... It claims that ... It could further be asserted ...
It is important to show this opposing argument, as by doing so you are showing that you have considered both sides of the argument, and also that you are able to anticipate and criticize any opposing arguments before they are even stated.
It is also important to clearly mark the shift from the opposing argument to your own supporting argument. In these three paragraphs, this is done by the use of the word however.
Paragraph 5 This is a very short conclusion.
Language Summary: ways of showing that you are aware of the opposing opinion
1 When you can think of the opposing opinion but you have not seen it written anywhere:
It may be argued that ..... However, ... asserted could be contended maintained might be claimed said
2 When you have seen the opposing opinion written in another text:
It is has been
argued by x (2003) that ..... However,. asserted .. contended maintained claimed stated
or
x (2003) argues that ..... However, ... asserts contends
