10
GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS I
1. Subject and verb
The subject usually refers to the theme or topic of the sentence, that is what the speaker is talking about. The subject
also refers either to the doer of an action performed by the verb (Mark is writing a letter); or the underdoer of an event
of an event or state indicated by the verb. The subject is an obligatory element in most sentences and usually appears
in the following positions: before the lexical verb in statements (I love jazz) and after a primary verb or the first
auxiliary verb in interrogative sentences, where questions are asked (Are you vegetarian? ).
The subject determines the number agreement with the verb in the present tense. The subject slot can be filled in by a
noun phrase or a pronoun phrase (Noise inside factories can be a problem). It can be filled in by certain kinds of finite
and non-finite subordinate clause too (Travelling abroad is fascinating).
Sentences introduced by the personal pronoun it followed by either the primary verb be + AP/NP or a verb in the
passive form have two subject slots. The first one, filled in by it, is known as preparatory, dummy or anticipatory
subject. The second one, filled in by certain kinds of finite and non-finite subordinate clause, is called extraposed
subject.
The verb conveys a wide range of meanings such as actions, events, processes, sensations or states of being. The verb
is an obligatory element in the vast majority of sentences and typically follows the subject in declarative sentences.
The verb slot must be filled in by a verb phrase, whose lexical verb plays a central role in sentence structure since it
largely determines the possible occurrence of object, complement and adverbial.
2. Object
The object can be of two types: direct and indirect. The direct object is the person or thing directly affected by the
action or process expressed by the verb (We bought a present). The indirect object is the recipient of the action or
process (We bought Claire a present).
Mono-transitive verbs and complex-transitive verbs are followed by the direct object, while di-transitive verbs are
followed by the indirect and direct object. Some pronouns have a particular form when performing the function of
object. The direct object slot can be filled in by a noun phrase or a pronoun phrase (I love chocolate). The indirect
object slot can be filled in by a noun phrase, a pronoun phrase or a preposition phrase with to and for (I have Roger a
hug).
The direct object slot can be filled in by certain kinds of finite and non-finite subordinate clauses (He tried to ring you
all day). Most lexical verbs which take an object, that is transitive verbs, can be used in the passive voice (A letter was
delivered by the postman), where the subject (a letter) is the affected entity, while the performer of the action is the
agent (the postman). In the active voice (The postman delivered the letter), the subject (the postman) performs the
action, while the direct object (the letter) is the affected entity.
The passive voice is used more in writing, particularly scientific and technical texts, as well as formal speech, where it
is important to use an objective and impersonal style. The passive voice allows in fact to give emphasis to an action,
process, or procedure rather than to the performer of that action, especially when the agent is not specified as in the
following examples taken from a variety of specialized registers.