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govesnment could focus on organisational structure, responsibilities and lozisiation, In explanations nominalisation námes causes, effects and consequences. In expositions and diseussions, nominalisation allows Us to name argurents, reasons, factors, issues eto. 6.2 Cohesion: making connections ammatical resources which writers and speakers use to link information connections across a text are collectively known as cohesion. sion refers to the way in which a text "hangs together”; to the resources in language that help reláte ideas and information and make links between terent parts of a text. There are five different cohesive resolTces—reference, elltpsis, substiturtion, lexical cohesion and text connectives, We will look at each of these in turn. Reference Referring words are those that 'point' to something in a text. They make links by refe.ring back to something previously mentioned in the text or by pointing toward to something further on. In written language, referring words can alsa nt to a section of co-text or to other locations outside the text such a5 ustrations, diagrams, tables and graphs. In spoken language, referring words point to something in the shared physical context. referring words are listed in Table 6.3. Tobía 6.3: Examples of referring words Peisanal prorouni 1/meJmine/my you/yours/your we/us/ours/our Ihey/Mher/iheirs/their she/herfners : the ihese, that, those Aaverbs: here, now, there, ¡hen Same/difterent, oiher, bigger/est jetc.), more/less Damonshalives [ Comparatives e Text 6.9 is a segment of mother/child interaction. The referring words have been highlighted. : Text 6.9 M: Susie, here's your apple. $: Vuk! That piece has got a brown spot on it. J want a diferent onel M: Susie, the opple's fine... stop Fussing. 5: ¡Es not fair. James hasn't got any brown pieces, His are nice. M; Well, put that piece there and eat the others. $: Don't want them either! Can | have a banana instead? The kind of reference found in Text 6.9 is typical of spoken language, where many of the referring words point outside the text ¡self—to objects and behaviours in the physical context, and to experiences and Understandings that are shared and 'understood' by the speakers. As a result, itis difficuli to retrieve the meaning of referring words like that, there and them unless you are actually part of the context. Exercise 6,14 Highlight the retering words in Text 6.10 (this extract accompanies a labelled alagram). Note the kind of reference "that is used. How does il differ from Text $.102 Text 6.10 The vesophagus lies beneath the trachea insido the chest. ftruns benind the lungs and heart. This is the view down the inside ot te cesophagus, Beneath ¡ts MUcus-covered ng there are muscles that run down the lengih of the oesophagus aná in a circular pattern around it. These muscles take over From the throat muscles.aPter toud is swalloweá, They work together to squegze the softened Hood down towarás he stomach. This is the next stop on our jolrney. Source: The Human Body [Hants 2000: As you can see, most'of the reference in this text points back to words in the text itself, Pronouns refer back to houn groups ia the text and the definite article the is used to refer to things that are assumed to be part of our general knowledge of the topic. Reference of this kind is common in written language and is often used to avoid repetition. However, too mueh reference can also sonnd repetitive and reference that is inconsistent in gender or number can make a text difficult to follow, Ellipsis and substitution As a text unfolds, itis not always necessary to explicitly mention every v component again and again, To avoid repetition, we sometimes leave out components of a clause or replace them with a shorter, substitute word, Omitting a €omponent of a clause is called ellipsis. Replacing a component of a los alonso with a shorter word like one, some, de is called substitution. The wiag exact includes several instances of both ellipsis (in brackets) and ion (in bold). Sie... ven, Tings are sell oretiy dad here. What san you see tom Where you are na? S Men can sean 's of ash and The occasional eruption from the volegno. ias here been one recently? Y o Tae tes” Cerupiiorí was about an hour ago. But theyre expecting more (eruptions as 1ma night goes on. si tas there been much talk o? evacuation? er Us know when they do Agan, both ellipsis and substitution are common in spoken texts, where much of w «¿ts being said can be taken for granted and need not be repeated in every turn. ln written language however, they need to be used sparingly. It can be very tl: esome for the reader if they have to constantly “replace' ellipsis and Lstitution in a written text, Lexical cohesion Conesion can also be achieved through different kinds of word associations or semantic relationships between the vocabulary or lexical iteras in a text. This is tálled lexical cohesion. Different kinds of lexical cohesion are ¡Mustrated in the analysis bf Text 6.12 below (see Table 6.4). “ax 6,12 % . There are two types of wambat, the ¿Bombats are Ausiralia's largest burrowing rnarsupi “«£ramon Wombar and the Hairy-Nosed Wombat, 12 Common Wombat has coarse Hur and no hair on its nose, Their dody is 1.1 metres g and they have a short tail. In comparison, the Hairy-Nosed Wombat has soft, silky Her and whrte hair on ts nose. They have a slightly smaller body and a longer tail. All wombats have short legs and very sharp claws for Aigging. Wombrrts live onty in souih-east Australia. The Common Wombat lives in forests and weodianás, whereas the Hairy-Nosza Wombat lives in open scrub aná grasstanás, 'Nambats are nocturnal. They sleep in feed at nigl their burrows during the day and come out to . Wombats are also herbivores Which means that they are plant-eaters. Table 6.4 [type ofiexical cohesion Examples from Text 6.12 The use of synonyms le. words that ere similar in meaning. Herbivores/plant-eaters The use of antonyms le, words that that have opposité or contrasiive meunings. Long/short; coarse fur/soft, sky Pur: woodtands/grassionds; day/night; The use of repeiltión le, words that ars repeated across a text. Wombats; the Common Wombat; Ene Hairy-Nosed Wombol; The use of collecalion ie. words Siaep/doy/fteeg/night 106 Grammar and Meaning that co-occur because they share a common slement of meaning. Words thai form a elass/sub-class relationship. + Burrowing marsupicl/wombatl * Wombat—Common/Hairy-Mosed + Nocturnal/wombat : - + Herbivore/wombat Words that torm a whole/part * Body—tur/nose/tail/legs/claws relationship, + South-east Australia— Ñ foresis/woodlanas/open scrub/grasslands The lexical items in a text form “sets” of words that are associated in different ways. Given that this text ls a report, 's not surprising that many words are associated by elass/sub-class and whole/part relationships. Thé comparison of the two types of wombats also usés antonyms, while repetition óf the themes helps maintain the focus on workbats. Exercise 5.15 : Read Text 6.13 and using < highlighter, mark any examples of lexical cohesión. Then record Hem in the table that follows, Text 6,13 : l believe that Junk food should not bie sold in the school canteen for the following reosons. The main réason is hat Junk food is bad Hor your Neatit. Lanhealtty Poods like chocolate bars, ide-creams, coke and sweets are full of sugar fat and tooa colowing. Another reason ¡$ that it creates more tabbish in he playgrouna because of ali the packets aná wrappers. Also, if students buy Junk food their behaviour may be affected dy all the sugar and chemicais, However $ they bought healthy toods Hey would have lots of energy and brainpower: Creatina well orcanised and cohasive texts Exercise 6.16 - Texi 6.14 Cities £iñies are large towns tha? have mary kinds ef buildings end a large population. There are also many special tanámarks and social preblerns. There are many kinds of buildings, some modern aná some very olá. For example, Centrepoint Tower, Queen Victoria guilding, the Opera House aná Hyde Park Barracks. In most cities the population is made up of penple from many different cuttures. For instance, the population of Sydney is about 3.5 million. This includes people from Vietnam, Greece, Lebanon, Japan, Samoa and Yugoslavia. Living in cities can create many probleras because there are thousands of people living together. Firstiy, problems arise ¡ke unemployment, homelessness and drugs. in addition, many siveet ganas can be found in cities, There are both man-made and natural landmarks in all s. These are Usually popular tourist attractions. For example, in Sydney, Taronga Park 200, Harbour Bridge and Darling Harbour are very popular. There are also some natural landmarks that are tourist attractions such as Bondi Beach, the Great Baer Reet and kakadu National Park. George (Age 11) l. Whet is :he social purpose and text type of Text 6.147 . Comment on te following aspects of text ergenisation: Tex! and paragraph previews: il. Circle any examples of nominalisafion, iv. Highlight any text connectives and identity vhot type they are. v. List any words nat are related by the following types oflexical coheslon: Class/sub-class Whole/part synonyms Antonyms Repeñion Collocailon Exercise 6.17 The following texts by younger writers show how ¡hey are beginning to use the grammatical resources of theme ánd cohesion. However, they also illustrate some ol the difficulies often experienced by developing writers. Read ihe texts and answer the questions that follow, Text 6.15 Brechiosaurus was a repiile, He had a long tail and a long neck. Ha walked on four legs. He was a herbivore and it ate plants. He lived in water. They laiá more than one egg. Huong (Age €) Even though this writer uses experiential Hhemes [le. noun groups end pronouns] to focus en he tople of the report. there are probleras with reference. Highiight the refering words. What do you nolice? j, Undeine any compound or complex sentences, How are the clauses in these sentences joined? 130 Grammar anal Manniner Creatina well arqanised and cohesive texts 111 
