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- CONNECTED SPEECH AND SANDHI FORMS
In unit 4 we introduced two new concepts: rhythm and weak forms. Both are relevant when talking about natural connected speech
We understand English rhythm as a stress-timed rhythm in which stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not.
It follows from this that in English all the feet are supposed to be of roughly the same duration, something that could not be done without the presence of the above mentioned weak forms or syllables and some linking devices or processes that are produced when speaking naturally, that is in a continuous stream of sounds, without clear-cut borderlines between them.
Now we will examine these processes, by which the phonemic patterns of words may be altered or changed, and their stylistic implications.
5.1. Linking features: word internal and across words A native speaker's aim in connecting words is maximum ease and efficiency of tongue movement when getting our message across. A consequence of this is a process of linking evidenced word internally and also across words
A linking process may imply modifications at the beginnings and ends of words in connected speech. For instance, the linking /r/, which consists in pronouncing word final spelling when the next word begins with a vowel, as in later on )
However, it is also possible for /r/ to be pronounced when no appears in the spelling. This is called intrusive or intruding /r/ and it is the result of a process of analogy. For instance, word final /ə/ is generally the result of spelling Vr , as in father , doctor , but when it is the result of spelling a , as in sofa , many E speakers tend to insert /r/, unconsciously, in cases such as sofa and chairs , following the same pattern as in father and mother.
Other linking processes require no modifications at the edges of words, and yet they are difficult for the Sp learner, because they involve consonant sequences to which he is unaccustomed
For example, in cases where one word ends in a consonant cluster and the next one begins with a vowel, the student tends to WRONGLY omit the final consonant. So as to avoid the omission of, for instance, final /t/ or /d/ in He stopped and looked around , the student should be encouraged to think of the utterances reorganized as /hi ’stͻp tən ’luk tə`raund/
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Articulatory simplifications such as assimilations, elisions, or compressions can occur inside words, thus giving rise to new lexical pronunciations, and at word boundary
In all languages pronunciation is in a constant state of evolution. English in particular has been largely affected by these articulatory simplifications although for the last few hundred years its spelling has not reflected these changes.
There is evidence that many modern words have undergone historical processes such as elision, assimilation or compression, and yet their present-day English spellings still stand for the old pronunciations: comb , knee (ellision); action , sure (assimilation)
Many lexical forms resulting from articulatory simplifications are relatively recent, although not completely consolidated.
An analysis of current English reveals that sometimes two, and less frequently three, alternatively lexical pronunciations of the same word may exist simultaneously:
- territory /’teritəri/ or /’teritri/ - education /’edjukeiʃņ/ or /eʤukeiʃņ/
The younger generations, for instance, tend to adopt elided, assimilated, and compressed forms which would even be considered negligent by their elders.
Phonemic variations inside words help therefore to determine different generational varieties of RP, and are also closely connected with styles of pronunciations (lexical forms containing elisions, assimilations and compressions represent a less formal style of delivery).
5.2. Elision
On trying to minimize our efforts in connected speech, we weaken our articulation (economy articulation). If this is weakened too much, the sound may disappear altogether, a process known as elision. It is the vowels from unstressed syllables which are the first to be elided in non-precise pronunciation (int(e)rest, sim(i)lar, lib(a)ry, diff(e)rent, t(o)night), but also consonants are affected, as can be seen in E postman /pəusmən/, secretary /sekrətri/, or Sp extranjero /estranxero/
Word internal
Elision of vowels mainly affects the weak, centralised one /ə, I, U/ when they are preceded and followed by consonants (usually /r, n, l/) in unaccented syllables:
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5.3. Assimilation
Assimilation can be defined as the process by which sounds are influenced by neighbouring sounds and come to share some or all of their phonetic characteristics. It is somehow an articulatory simplification. It is an articulatory adjustment which is the result of an unconscious propensity towards ease of articulation and economy. They may take place at the allophonic level, but the more important assimilations can occur at the phonemic level, e.g. E don’t you /də U nʧu:/. According to the direction of the change, assimilation can be regressive, when the initial sound of a word affects the final sound of the previous word (i.e., not possible /-p p-/, close shave /-ʃ ʃ-/); or progressive, when the initial sound of the second word is affected (i.e., I told you /a I ‘tə U lʤu:/). Of the two, regressive assimilation is much more common in English than progressive
Word internal
The following are examples of words in which the assimilated variant can be considered the normal lexical form for very many speakers. The non-assimilated variant may be regarded as belonging to a more studied, conservative style of speech:
- /ʧ/ ~ /tj/ Ma t ure Chris t ian Accen t uate Si t uation Impor t unate - /ʤ/ ~ /dj/ Education Indivi d ual - /ʃ/ ~ /sj, s I / Asso c iation Gla c ial Appre c iation In the following cases, the assimilated forms are the only recommendation for the learner to adopt: - /ʧ/ Even t ually Fac t ual Fa t uous For t une Sa t uration Sta t ue Vir t ue - /ʤ/ Gra d ual Gra d uate (n.) Proce d ure
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- /ʃ/ Appre c iate Asso c iate Depre c iation Differen t iation I ss ue Nego t iate Sen s ual Sen s uous Se x ual Ti ss ue
At word boundary
This type of assimilation is often referred to as juxtapositional or contextual. The English consonant sounds most easily influenced by adjacent sounds in connected speech are the alveolars /t, d, s, z, n/ Assimilation of place of articulation /t, d, n/ may be assimilated to /p, b, m/ or to /k, g, ŋ/ respectively under the influence of the bilabials /p, b, m/ or the velars /k, g/, respectively:
- That plan /’ðæp plæn/ - You’d better /jub betə/ - On purpose /om pə:pəs/ - Hot cakes /’hᴐk ke I ks/ - I should go /a I ʃ U g ‘gə U / - His own car /h I z ə U ŋ k a :/ - He won’t play /hi: ’wə U ŋk gəu/
Assimilation of manner Very rare in English. It involves a change from a “stronger/more difficult” consonant (one making a more substantial obstruction to the flow of air, i.e., a plosive) to a “weaker/easier” one (one which makes less obstruction to the airflow, i.e., a fricative or nasal. It is typical of rapid speech:
- That side becomes /đæs saId/ - Good night becomes /gƱn naIt/ Yod coalescence /t, d/ may be assimilated to /ʧ, ʤ/ respectively when immediately followed by /j/, as in last year /l a :sʧ I ə/, or behind you /b I ha I nʤu:/ /s, z/ may be assimilated to /ʃ, Ʒ/ respectively when /ʃ, j/ + rounded vowel follow, as in her voice shook /hə: vo I ʃ ʃ U k/; in case you do / I ŋ ‘ke I ʃ ju:…/ or / I n ‘ke I ʃ ʃu: …/; he was shot /hi: wəh ʃᴐt/
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Factors that have contributed to this speeding up and flexibility are widespread radio and television broadcasting, and the increasing informality in public speaking and social behaviour. These changes, together with the elusive nature of some of the phonetic features mentioned above, make it difficult for phoneticians to coincide in their views and draw exact dividing lines between different styles. However, for practical reasons, we can talk about the following styles of pronunciation: formal, unhurried colloquial and informal colloquial: Formal Characterized by a slow speed of delivery or tempo, a precise articulation, a high frequency of accented words, and a extreme clarity Its use is limited to very specific occasions: formal recitations, church services, etc. Unhurried colloquial It is a clear and slow conversational style which makes most use of the ‘ideal’ citation forms, i.e., those appearing in pronouncing dictionaries. Its slow tempo requires a high frequency of accented words, a minimum number of contextual assimilations and elisions, and a precise articulation Depending on the age of the speaker, it may also include word- internal elisions and assimilations Informal colloquial It is the most informal conversational style, generally referred to as ‘rapid’ colloquial It is not simply a quicker version of the unhurried colloquial style. It rather is the result of a series of phonetic simplifications of the ideal citation forms These simplifications take the form of a maximum number of assimilations, elisions and compressions, lax, slurred articulations, and a reduction of accented words Examples of these possible assimilations, elisions and compressions are: i. assimilation of /t, d, n/ to /p, b, m/ before /w/, e.g. in winter / I m ‘w I ntə/ ii. assimilation of /d/ to /n, m/, e.g. good night /gun ’na I t/, good morning /gum ’mͻn I ŋ/ iii. Elision of certain consonants, as /d/ in wild west /wa I l west/; /v/ when of , have are followed by a consonant, as in a cup of tea /ə ‘kɅp ə ti:/; /l when following /ͻ/, as in already /ͻ’red I / iv. Elision of weak, unaccented vowels before the main accent, e.g. suppose /spəuz/, police /pli:s/ v. Compression of syllabic consonants, which become non- syllabic, e.g. totally /təutl I /, library /la I br I / vi. Compression of double (geminated) consonants, e.g. in my class / I ma I ’kl a :s/, take care /te I ’ keə/
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5.6. Exercises
Aspects of connected speech: Exercises on weak forms Exercises on the different types of assimilation Exercises on r-linking Exercises on elision Transcriptions (direct and reverse)
