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Old English, Apuntes de Idioma Inglés

Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Idioma Inglés

Asignatura: Historia de la lengua inglesa I, Profesor: , Carrera: Filología Inglesa, Universidad: UCM

Tipo: Apuntes

2013/2014

Subido el 13/08/2014

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Historia de la lengua Inglesa I
Historical introduction to Old English:
The presence in England of Germanic peoples was due to a movement of migration
and expansion of the Germanic peoples in that moment of the history.
The Anglo-Saxons settlement of Britain must not be thought of as the arrival of a
unified invading army, but rather as the arrival and penetration of various unco-
ordinated bands of adventurers in different parts of the country, biginning in the
middle of the fith century and going on all through the sixth century. By about 700,
the Anglo-Saxons had occupied the most of England.
The Anglo-Saxon conquest was not just the arrival of a ruling minority, but the
settlement of a whole people. Their language remained the dominant one and Celts
were a defeated people whose language had no prestige compared with that of the
conquerors.
The piecemeal way in which the Anglo-Saxons conquered England led to a profusion
of small kingdoms, and no doubt to dialect differentiation. In any case there were
probably dialect differences from the start, for the invaders came from more than one
Germanic tribe: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Whatever their exacts origins, these
groups were in any case closely related in language and culture, and regarded
themselves as one people (the word Engle “the Angles” came to be applied to all the
Germanic settlers in Britain).
Political union came slowly, in the early years there was a medley of petty kingdoms.
By a process of conquest and amalgamation, this medley of kingdoms was eventually
reduce to seven, called de Heptarchy: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex,
Sussex, Kent and Wessex. Different kings managed to establish their suzerainty over
other kingdoms at various times, but it was not until the ninth century when the kings
of Wessex, the notably King Alfred who saved the south and West of England from
the Danes, finally unified the country.
The unification of England under the West Saxon kings led to the recognition of the
EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.
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Historical introduction to Old English: The presence in England of Germanic peoples was due to a movement of migration and expansion of the Germanic peoples in that moment of the history. The Anglo-Saxons settlement of Britain must not be thought of as the arrival of a unified invading army, but rather as the arrival and penetration of various unco- ordinated bands of adventurers in different parts of the country, biginning in the middle of the fith century and going on all through the sixth century. By about 700, the Anglo-Saxons had occupied the most of England. The Anglo-Saxon conquest was not just the arrival of a ruling minority, but the settlement of a whole people. Their language remained the dominant one and Celts were a defeated people whose language had no prestige compared with that of the conquerors. The piecemeal way in which the Anglo-Saxons conquered England led to a profusion of small kingdoms, and no doubt to dialect differentiation. In any case there were probably dialect differences from the start, for the invaders came from more than one Germanic tribe: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Whatever their exacts origins, these groups were in any case closely related in language and culture, and regarded themselves as one people (the word Engle “the Angles” came to be applied to all the Germanic settlers in Britain). Political union came slowly, in the early years there was a medley of petty kingdoms. By a process of conquest and amalgamation, this medley of kingdoms was eventually reduce to seven, called de Heptarchy: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent and Wessex. Different kings managed to establish their suzerainty over other kingdoms at various times, but it was not until the ninth century when the kings of Wessex, the notably King Alfred who saved the south and West of England from the Danes, finally unified the country. The unification of England under the West Saxon kings led to the recognition of the EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.

West Saxon dialect as a literary standard. In that period there was a tendency for the manuscripts to be copied by West Saxon scribes and so put into West Saxon form. One interesting thing is that, although West Saxon became the literary standard of a united England in the late Anglo-Saxon period, it is not the direct ancestor of modern standard English, which is mainly derived from an Anglian dialect. 1.- Phonologic system in Old English: No one knows exactly how Old English sounded. Rather, linguists have painstakingly reconstructed the pronunciation of Old English from various kinds of evidences: what we know of Latin pronunciation (since the Anglo-Saxons adopted the Latin alphabet to write their language), comparisons with other Germanic languages and with later staged of English, and accentuation and quantity of syllables in Old English poetry. 1.1.- Vowels and diphthongs: Old English had six simple vowels, spelled a, œ, i, o, u and y, and probably a seventh spelled ie. It also had two diphthongs (two-part vowels) ea and eo. Each of these sounds came in short and long versions. When we speak of vowel length in Old English, we are speaking of duration, how long it takes to pronounce a vowel. When we speak of length in Modern English, we are speaking of defferences in the quality of a vowel, it does not make difference in meaning. Vowel length in Old English is significant because it does make difference in the meaning of words. For example, is in Old English means “is” while īs means “ice”, ac means “but” while āc means “oak”. a) Simple vowels: the following list of vowels deals with quality only; the short and long vowels sound alike except for a difference in duration.

  • a is pronounced [a] as in ModE father. Macian “make”, bāt “boat”.
  • œ is pronounced [æ] as in ModE cat. Bœck “back”, rœdan “read”.
  • e is pronounced [e] as in ModE fate (actually [I] or [ε]). Helpan “help”, fēdan “feed”. EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.

(as in “then”) when they fall between vowels or other voiced sounds, the f of heofon “heaven” , hœfd “had” and wulfas “wolves” is voiced. So are the s of ċēosan “choose” and the đ of feđer “feather”. This distinction remains not only in such Modern Enlgish singular/plural pairs as wolf/wolves but also in such pairs as noun bath and verb bathe, noun cloth and derivative clothes.

  • These same consonants are pronounced as unvoiced [f] , [s] and [θ] (as in thing) when they came at the biginning or the end of a word or adjacent to at least one unvoiced sound. So f is unvoiced in ful “full” , crœft “craft” and wulf “wolf”. The s is unvoiced in settan “set” , frost “frost” and wulfas “wolves” , and þ/đ is unvoiced in þœt “that” and strengđ “strength”.
  • When written double, consonants must be pronounced double, or held longer. We pronounce long in ModE phrases like “big gun” and “hat trick” though never within words. In Old English wile “he will” must be distinguished from wille “I will” and freme “do” from fremme “I do”.
  • c and ċ : undotted c is pronounced [k] and dotted ċ is pronounced [tſ] , like in ModE “chin”. This letter is never pronounced [s] in Old English. It has a special function in the combination sc.
  • g and ġ : dotless g is pronounced [g] as in good when it comes at the beginning of a word or syllable. Between voiced sounds dotless g is pronounced [γ] a voiced velar spirant. Dotted ġ is pronounced [j] as in ModE yes , but when it follows an n it is pronounced [d ] as in ModE “angel”.
  • The combination cg is pronounced [d ] like the consonant group “dg” in Modern English. Brycg “bridge” , ecg “edge”.
  • Old English h is pronounced [h] as in Modern English, at the beginning of syllables, but elsewhere it is pronounced approximately like German ch in Nacht or Ich, this is a velar [x] or palatal [ç ] unvoiced spirant. Nēah “near” , niht “night” , þēah “though”. EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.
  • The combination sc is usually pronounced [ſ] like ModE sh : scip “ship” , œsc “ash” , wyscan “wish”. But within a word, if sc occurs before a back vowel (a, o, u) or if it occurs after a back vowel at the end of a word, it is pronounced [sk] : ascian “ask” , tūsc “tusk”. When sc is pronounced [sk] sometimes undergoes metathesis, the sound got reversed to [ks] and is written x : axian for ascian , tux for tusc. Sometimes sc is pronounced [ſ] in one form of a word and [sk] or [ks] in another: fisc “fish” , fiscas/fixas “fishes”. 2.- Changes in the phonological system of Old English: Old english shows certain phonological developments of its own compared with other Germanic languages. The Proto-Germanic diphthongs were changed in Old English. For example, PG ai became ā in OE, so that Old English has stān and hām where Gothic has stains and haims , “stone” and “village”. And PG au became OE ēa , so that Old English has drēam where Old Norse has draumr “dream” , and bēam where German has baum “tree, pole”. In prehistoric Old English a number of combinative sound-changes took place:
  • Front mutation or i-mutation: this was a series of changes to vowels which took place when there was an i , ī or j in the following syllable. Subsequently the i , ī , or j disappeared, or changed to e , but its original presence can be establish by examining cognate words in other languages. Front mutation, for example, accounts for the difference in vowel between the related word dole and deal. In Old English they are dāl “portion” and dælan “to divide” , in which the æ is due to front mutation: this is clear if we look at the Gothic words which are dails and dailjan.
  • OE dælan is a weak verb, and its normal for the stem-vowels of OE weak verbs to show front mutation. The weak verbs were formed in two main ways: there are denominative verbs (formed from nouns or adjectives) and causative verbs (formed from strong verbs). OE dælan is an example of denominative EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.

pronunciation of English that are still evident in Modern English. i-mutation also accounts for most of the verbs that both change their vowels and add a past-tense ending, like sell and sold, buy and bought.

  • Other combinative changes in prehistoric Old English caused the diphthongization of pure vowels, often with different results in different dialects. One change, called breaking or fracture affected the vowels before /l/ plus consonant, /r/ plus consonant, and /h/. so West Saxon and Kentish have the forms ceald “cold” , earm “arm” , and eatha “eight” , compared with Gothic kalds, arms and ahtau. The Anglian dialects, however, have unbroken vowels in many positions, as in cald “cold” and æhta “eight”.
  • Another prehistoric change was the diphthongization of some front vowels after initial [j] and palatalized [k] , as in West Saxon geaf “he gave” , giefan “to give” , gēar “year”. The change also took place in Northumbrian in some positions, but not in Kentish or Mercian. 3.- Middle English Phonological system: Middle English phonology is necessarily somewhat speculative, since it is preserved only as a written language. The Middle English speech of the city of London in the late 14th century (essentially, the speech of Geoffrey Chaucer) is used as the standard Middle English dialect in teaching and when specifying the grammar or phonology of Middle English. 3.1.- Consonants:
  • [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ occurring before /g/ and /k /. for example ring “ring” [riŋg]. [ŋ] did not occur alone word-finally in Middle English as it does in Modern English.
  • [ç, x] are allophones of /h/ occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively. For example, night “night” is [niçt] , while taught “taught” is [tauxt]. EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.
  • In Old English, [v] , [đ] , [z] were allophones of /f/ , /θ/ , /s/ , respectively occurring between vowels or voiced consonants. This led to many alternations such as hūs “house” [hu:s] vs. hūses “of a house” [hu:zes], wīf “wife” [wi:f] vs. wīfes “of a wife” [wi:ves]. 3.2.- Vowels: Note that Middle English has a distintion between high mid and low mid vowels, but no corresponding distinction in short vowels. Monophthongs Short Long Front Back Front Back High i (y) u i: (y:) u: High mid e (ø) o e: (ø:) o: Low mid ε: (œ:) : Low a a: Diphthongs Second element /u/ Second element /i/ Back Front Back Front High /iu/ /ui/ Mid high /ou/> /u:/ /eu/>/iu/ /oi/>/ui/ /ei/>/i:/ Mid low / u/ /εu/ / I/ /εi/>/ai/ Low /au/ /ai/ Some of the new conventions in spelling from Old English to Middle English are the followings:
  • A new symbol g was introduced for the stops represented by OE , and the OE symbol was retained only for fricatives.
  • The letter y was nor longer used to represent a front rounded vowel, but was simply used as an alternative to i, so that ME king and kyng represent exactly the same pronunciation.
  • OE [d ] never ocurred in word-initial position, only medially and finally, but EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.

normally belongs to the second syllable, and the first syllable is therefore open. Thus in the OE verb bacan “to bake” the syllable-division is ba-can, and the first syllable is an open one. This word became early ME baken (still with short [a], and then the vowel in the open syllable was lengthened to [a:]), which in Modern English has developed into the [ei] of bake. When there are two consonants between the vowels, the first consonant belongs to the first syllable, which is therefore a close one.

  • The vowels which were regularly lengthened were a, o, and e. When o was lengthened it became a long open vowel, and in the standar language it became identical with ME ō, so that today we have the same vowel in boat and home (from OE bāt and hām) as in hope and throat (from OE hopa and þrote)
  • When e was lengthened it too became a long open vowel, and in the standard language it fell together with the ME ę, so that today we have the same vowel in sea and to lead (from OE sæ and lædan) as in meat and steal (from OE mete and stelan).
  • In some parts of Northern England and East of Anglia, the vowels i and u were also lengthened under the same conditions, and then became ME ẹ and ọ. For example, week (from OE wicu) and evil (Early ME ivel from OE yfel).
  • Because of the inflectional system of English, the conditions for lengthening were sometime fulfilled in one form of a word, but not in another. For example, OE cradol “a cradle” became ME cradel, and here the lengthening of the a would occur. But the plural “cradles” was OE cradelas (ME cradeles), and “in a cradle” was ME on cradole, and no lengthening would take place in this, because they were three-syllable forms.
  • This lengthening of vowels in open syllables fo dissyllabic words has affected our spelling-conventions. In Early Middle English, words like bake had two syllables. After the first vowel had been lengthened, the final -e was lost, and EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.

such words became monosyllables. But the -e was often retained in spelling, and so we tend in Modern English to regard a final -e as a mark of a preceding long vowel or a diphthong. Thus we use spellings like home and stone, where the final -e has no etymological justification. EO = Old English, ME = Middle English, ModE = Modern English, PG = Proto-Germanic.