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The disciplined mind by howard gardner explores the importance of education in shaping individuals and societies. It delves into the timeless and time-bound aspects of education, examining how recent scientific and humanistic research on the human mind, brain, and cultures can inform educational practices. The book discusses the challenges of achieving deep understanding in the classroom, the role of assessment, and the evolving nature of education in a rapidly changing world. It emphasizes the need for an education that cultivates well-rounded individuals who can critically engage with the world and work towards positive change. The author's insights on the complexities of modern education make this work a valuable resource for educators, policymakers, and anyone interested in the future of learning.
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The Arts and Human Development The Shattered Mind Developmental Psychology Artful Scribbles Art, Mind, and Brain Frames of Mind The Mind’s New Science
The Unschooled Mind
Multiple Intelligences: TheTheory in Practice
Creating Minds Leading Minds Jntelligence: Multiple Perspectives (with Mindy Kornhabcr and WarrenWake) Extraordinary Minds
Simon & Schuster
16 Howard Gardner (^) A Personal Introduction 17
schools throughout the world, 1 have come to my own conclusions about this question.These conclusions are personal; in a sense, I am addressing this book to my own four children and their descendants. At the same time, however, I intend this book to be universal, to speak to individuals all over the world who care about education: indeed, as the title of this chapter states, my concern is the education of all human beings. Not that I think there is oniy one ideal education; that idea is naive. Still, I’ve come to believe that certain features ought to characterize good educa- tion—.-or, more properly, good educations—everywhere in the world.
I want everyone to focus on the content of an education—thc meat and potatoes: on how that content should be presented, mastered, put to use, and passed along to others. Specifically, I believe that three very important concerns should animate education; these concerns have names arid histories that extend far back into the past.There is the realm of truth—and its underside, what is false or indeterminable There is the realm of _beauty—and its absence in experiences or objects that are ugly or kitschy. And there is the realm of morality—what we consider to he good, and what we consider to be evil. To make clearer what I include in these realms, let me mention three topics that I would like individuals to understand in their fullness. My example in the realm of truth is the theory of evolution, as first articu- lated by Charles Darwin and as elaborated upon by other scientists over the last one hundred and fifty years. This is an important area of science, with particular significance for a developmental psychologist like me. Unless one has some understanding of the key notions of species, variation, natural selection, adaptation, and the like (and how these have been discovered), unless one appreciates the perennial struggle among individuals (and populations) for survival in a particu- lar ecological niche, one cannot understand the living world of which we arc a part. The processes of evolution are fascinating in their own right, as countless budding scientists have discovered. But such understanding has also become necessary if one is to participate meaningfully in con-
temporary society. Absent a grasp of evolution, we cannot think system- atically about a whole range of topics that affect human beings today: the merits and perils of cloning; the advisability of genetic counseling, gene therapy, and various forms of eugenics; assertions that “lifelike entities” have been created computationally and that these entities evolve in a manner similar to organic matter; claims that human behavior is best explained by sociobiology or evolutionary psychology.* As roy example in the realm of beauty, I select the music of Mozart: to
sonal. I love classical music, and in particular the works of Mozart; for me, at least, they represent the pinnacle of beauty fashioned by human beings. I believe that everyone ought to gain an understanding of rich works like Figaro—their intricate artistic languages, their portrayals of credible characters with deeply felt human emotions, their evocation of the sweepof an era. Again, such understanding is its own reward; millions of people all over the globe have been enriched by listening to Mozart or immersing themselves in other artistic masterpieces from diverse cultures. More- over, a sophisticated grasp of Mozart’s achievement can be brought to bear on unfamiliar works of art and craft and perhaps also inspire beauti- ful new creations. And such understanding also proves relevant to the decisions that we make as citizens: which arts, artists, and other creative individuals to support; how to support them; how best to encourage new works; whether there are artistic creations that ought to be cen- sored or regulated, and, if so, by whom; whether the arts should be taught in school, after school, or not at all. Finally, as my example in the realm of morality, I would like individu- als to understand the sequence of events known as the Holocaust: the systematic killing of the Jews and certain other groups by the Nazis and others, before and especially during the Second World War. This event has personal significance, since my family came from Germany and sev- eral of its members were victims of the Holocaust. But every human being needs to understand what it is that human beings are capable of doing, sometimes in secret, sometimes with pride. And if the Holocaust is mostly an account of unprecedented human evil, there are scattered
*Specific references arc found at the end ofthis book.
18 Howard Gardner (^) A Personal Introduction 19
Like the study of science and art, accounts of historical events can be intrinsically fascinating. But they have a wider significance. I believe that people are better able to chart their life course and make life decisions when they know how others have dealt with pressures and dilemmas— historically, contemporaneously, arid in works of art. And only equipped
porary discussions (and decisions) about the culpability of various indi- viduals and countries in the Second World War, Only with such understanding can we ponder the responsibility of human beings every- where to counter current efforts at genocide in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and to bring the perpetrators to justice. The understanding of striking examples of truth, beauty, and good- ness is sufficiently meaningful for human beings that it can be justified in its own right. At the same time, however, such an understanding is also necessary for productive citizenship. The ways of thinking—the disci- plines—that have developed over the centuries represent our best approach to almost any topic. Without such understanding, people can- not participate fully in the world in which they-_we—live. One might think that at least some understanding of these well- known topics is widespread. It is therefore sobering to discover that the theory of evolution is considered to be false by one out of every two Americans, and even by 20 percent of science educators. According to the noted scientist Carl Sagan, only 9 percent of Americans accept that humans have evolved slowly from more ancient beings without any divine intervention, As for the Holocaust, about one-third of all Swedish high school students believe that the Holocaust did not take place. Comparable skepticism (if not outright denial) is expressed by various American groups; 20 percent ofAmericans admit that they do not know what happened in the Holocaust and 70 percent wish that they were bet- ter informed about it. Robert Simon, who teaches philosophy at Hamilton College, reports that anywhere from 10 to 20 percent of his American students cannot bring themselves to say that the Nazi attempt at genocide was wrong. It is not difficult to anticipate a response to this trio of topics: How can one call this an education for all human beings? It is time-bound (the modern era); it is place-bound (Western Europe and places influenced by it); and it is even linked to the author’s personal concerns. “Right and not right,” as they say. I would indeed be pleased if all
human beings became deeply immersed in the themes of evolution, Mozart, and the Holocaust. There are worse ways to enlarge one’s uni-
uniquely so. Within the West, thereare numerous other scientific theories of importance (Newtonian mechanics and plate tectonics, to name just two examples); other singular artistic achievements (the works of Michelangelo or Rembrandt, Shakespeare or George Eliot); other morally tinged historical events (the French and Soviet revolutions; the American struggle over slavery). And within other cultural traditions,
ries about healing or traditional Chinese medicine); the beautiful (Japanese ink and brush painting; African drum music); and good and evil (the precepts of Jainism, the stories of Pol Pot and Mao’s Cultural Revolution; the generosity of bodhisattvas). I am not contending, then, that everyone needs to be able to explain what constitutes a species or to discern the development of melodies and the intermingling romances in a work like Figaro, or to analyze the reasons why so many Germans were complicitous in the Holocaust. Rather, what I claim is that “an education for all human beings” needs to explore in some depth a set of key human achievements captured in the venerable phrase “the true, the beautiful, and the good.” Another possible objection. Aren’t the categories “true,” “beautiful,” and “good” themselves time- and culture-bound? Again, this is a valid point, but not a decisive one. The articulated concepts of “truth,” “beauty,” and “goodness” reflect a philosophically oriented culture; indeed, our first records of explicit discussion of these virtues are the dialogues recorded by Plato in Greece nearly 2500 years ago. Other cul- tures have developed similar notions, although how they parse the three domains may well differ. However, the beliefs and practices of cul- tures—the beliefs and practices that they value, transmit, punish, or prohibit—reveal that each culture harbors specific views of how the world is and how it should (and should not) be. And these views embody implicit senses of truth, beauty, and morality. There is another, more important reason for my endeavor. In the end, education has to do with fashioning certain kinds of individuals—the kinds of persons I (and others) desire the young of the world to become. I crave human beings who understand the world, who gain sustenance from such understanding, and who want—_arderaly, perennially—to
22 Howard Gardner (^) A Personal Introduction 23
others have been involved in recent years. Clearly, I have my own pre- ferred educational approach; this book stands, in a sense, as a brief in favor of that regimen, as well as a guide to how it might be realized. At the same time, because of the huge differences in value systems found across groups and cultures, I doubt that it will ever be possible to develop one ideal form of education and to implement it throughout the world. Perhaps that is just as well; a world with a single educational sys- tem—or, for that matter, a single culture_might be a dull place. It seems far more feasible to design a limited number of powerful approaches, each ofwhich can meet the needs and desires of a significant portion of the world’s population. Accordingly, I describe how one might develop six distinct educational pathways, including the one I pre- fer, each with its own set of standards. And finally, I return to the indis- pensable issue of values~which educational values we cherish, and how to make sure that a good education is also a “humane education” for all human beings.
Signposts
That, in short, is what this book is about. Let me now erect a few sign- posts that signal my bcliefs—or, to adopt an even more basic metaphor, let me lay my educational cards on the table. First, education consists of more than school. Much of what I write about concerns what does—or should—occur in classrooms. But edu- cation took place long before there were formal institutions called schools; and today, other institutions—for example, the media—vie with schools in their educational scope and power. Relatedly, discussion of education has often been restricted to the cognitive realm, even to specific disciplines. My own scholarly and applied work has often been viewed as being restricted in this way. Yet I see education as a far broader endeavor, involving motivation, emotions, and social and moral practices and values. Unless these facets of the per- son are incorporated into daily practice, education is likely to be ineffec- tive—or, worse, to yield individuals who clash with our notions of humanity. Much of education occurs implicitly rather than explicitly. One can certainly mount specific courses in how to think, how to act, how to
behave morally. Some didactic lessons are appropriate. Yet we humans are the kinds of animals who learn chiefly by observing others—what they value, what they spurn, how they conduct themselves from day to clay, antI, especially, what they do when they believe that no one is look- ing. Continually, l will call for schools—more properly, school comrnsrni- ties—that embody certain values, and for teachers who exhibit certain virtues. Ditto with respect to the media, the family, and other influential educational institutions. I turn next to labels. Much of what I write about can be identified with the educational tradition of John Dewey-_with what has been called progressive or neo-progressive education. I reject the baggage that has (inappropriately, I believe) come to be associated with this label. One can be progressive while also espousing traditional educational goals and calling for the highest standards of work, achievement, and behavior. In the words of Dewey himself: “The organized subject matter of the adult and the specialist... represents the goal toward which education should continuously move.” What about the canon? Given my examples of evolution, Mozart, and the Holocaust, it may seem as if I have taken up the cause of Western thought, or even championed the controversial legacy of the Dead White Male. I am indeed dedicated to in-depth study of’ the most impor- tant human achievements, topics, and dilemmas. I think that everybody should have heroes and that we can learn even from those figures who, like all heroes, are flawed. But unlike those who define an a priori canon, I believe that decisions about what is important are best left to a specific educational community; that all such decisions are tentative at best; and that they should be subject to constant negotiation and recon- sideration. To put it in the terms of my endeavor, I do not believe in singular or incontrovertible truth, beauty, or morality. Every time period, every cul- ture will have its own provisional favorites and tentative lists. We should begin with an exploration of the ideals of our own community, and we should also become acquainted with the ideals of other com- munities. We may not endorse the aesthetics of postmodernism or the morality of fundamentalist Islam or the truths of the Vatican Council. But we live in a world where these preferences exist, and it is necessary and proper for us to learn to live with them—and for them to learn to live with us.
24 Howard Gardner (^) A Personal Introduction 25
It should be evident that I believe even less in “core knowledge” or “cultural literacy”; not only is this an idle pursuit, but it conveys a view of learning that is at best superficial and at worst anti-intellectual, If this book is a sustained dialectic—read “disagreement”—with any contem- porary educational thinker~that thinker is the noted literary analyst and educator E. D. Hirsch. Hirsch calls for a sequenced K—I 2 curriculum in which students cover a large number of specified topics and concepts for each year of school. To be sure, I cherish individuals who are familiar with their own and other cultures, but such literacy should come as a result’ of probing important issues and learning how to think about them in a disciplined way—not as a consequence of mastering fifty or five hundred predetermined topics each year. On my educational landscape, questions are more important than answers; knowledge and, more important, understanding should evolve from the constant probing of such questions. It’s not because I know for certain what the true and the beautiful and the good are that I call for their study. In fact, I distrust people who claim that they know what is true, beautiful, or good. I organize my presentation around these topics because they motivate individuals to learn about and understand their world, and because, frankly, I reject a world in which individuals cease to pursue these essential questions just because they do not permit unequivocal resolution. No one likes jargon, especially other people’s jargon, and few bodies of professional lingo are less beloved than the argotof educators. I try to keep “ed talk” to a minimum and to introduce and illustrate terms when I use them. Still, the study of education is itself a discipline; it would be foolish to ignore its insights, disingenuous to censor its vocabulary. And so, with a tinge of regret, I will on occasion speak about educational goals (why we want/need to educate); curriculum (the topics and con- tents that one chooses to emphasize); disciplines (which subjects and, more critically, which ways of thinking are important to inculcate); ped- agogy (the strategies, tactics, and “moves” made by those formally charged with responsibility for education); and assessment (the means, formal and informal, by which educators and the wider community establish what has and has not been mastered by the“student body”). A final concern. If readers know my work at all, they are likely to be familiar with my claim that human beings have at least eight separate forms of intelligence, and that we differ from one another in our “pro-
tiles of intelligence.” Others, as well as my own associates, have devoted a great deal of effort to investigating the educational implications of this theory, and I’ll touch on some of that work later on. My psychological work on multiple intelligences has had an unantic- ipated consequence. This is the assumption on the part of some critics that I am unsympathetic to a rigorous education, and that I eschew high standards. I suppose that is because the idea of multiple intelligences is rightly seen as a critique of the notion of a single intelligence, and of a school curriculum targeted exclusively to linguistic and logical capaci- ties and concerns. Also, my critique of traditional standardized testing, with its almost total emphasis on linguistic and logical skills, has also led some to conclude that I am uncomfortable with assessment more generally. A belief in multiple intelligences, however, is in no sense a statement about standards, rigor, or expectations, and it is certainly not a rejection of these desiderata, On the contrary: I am a demon for high standards and demanding expectations. I do not always succeed in my own life and work, but it is not for lack of trying. It pains me to see my work aligned (I could have written “maligned”) with that of individuals who are apol- ogists for low standards, low expectations, “anything goes.” Perhaps there is little that I can do to correct such a misrepresenta- tion. But I can state, as emphatically as I know how, that an education for all human beings is an education that demands much from all of us— teachers as well as students, societies as well as individuals, and (if I may) readers as well as writers. Moreover, an education for all human beings cannot succeed unless we have ways of ascertaining what has been understood and what has been mildly or fatally misconstrued. I envision a world citizenry that is highly literate, disciplined, capable of thinking critically and creatively, knowledgeable about a range of cul- tures, able to participate actively in discussions about new discoveries and choices, willing to take risks for what it believes in. This statement of values may confound both friends and foes. “Progressives” may fear that, in my talk about truth and standards, I have left their fold. “Traditionalists” may welcome these “confessions of mid- dle age” but will continue to quarrel with my focus on individualized education and my resistance to a fixed canon. I hope that this book will stimulate partisans of both stripes to examine and reexamine their unexamined assumptions.
28 Howard Gardner Educational Constants^^29
assuming roles in a religious ceremony or collaborating in the creation of works of art. While little may be said overtly on these occasions, the practices of the adults often signal clear beliefs about how the world is and how it should be. And these beliefs include notions about truth, beauty, and goodness. Indeed, the two major goals of education across time and space could be called the modeling of adult roles and the transmission of cultural values. Every society must ensure that the most important adult roles— leader, teacher, parent, priest—are properly filled by members of the next generation. Whether the culture depends upon hunters, preparers of food, sailors, weavers, priests, lawyers, merchants, or computer pro- grammers, it is important that a certain proportion of youngsters be able to perform these roles skillfully and, eventually, transmit their key features to succeeding generations. By the same token, every society must ensure that its most central values—valor or peacefulness; kind- ness or toughness; pluralism or uniformity_are passed on successfully to those who will themselves one day transmit them. In the past, both roles and values have evolved very slowly. In many societies, means of transmission scarcely changed over the centuries, Nowadays, values change more rapidly, but still at a measured pace. Roles, on the other hand, are changing considerably from one genera- tion (or even decade) to the next, placing considerable pressure on the institutions of education.
Of course, nowadays we associate education primarily with formal school settings rather than with informal observation or work at home, in the fields, or at the fireside. Formal instruction comes about chiefly under specific circumstances. A procedure—such as sailing a craft over long distances in turbulent waters—may be too complex to be appre. hended simply by observing. A notational system—such as those that convey verbal propositions, numerical relations, or geographical loci— may require careful study over sustained periods of time, A body of lore—often religious or legal lore—may need to be studied, committed memory, drawn upon when appropriate, and transmitted eventually
to the next generation. And finally, there are likely to be formal aca- demic disciplines that reflect the culture’s procedures for confronting questions about the physical, biological, and personal worlds. Around the world, schools have gradually evolved to serve such func- tions. There are “bush schools” in Africa, where children learn about the past of their tribe. There are informal compounds in the South Seas ~~‘hereyoungsters memorize information about the craft of sailing, as svell as the names and locations of the hundreds of islands around which they will have to navigate. In communities with a written religious text, whether in Greek, Hebrew, Latin, Arabic, or Sanskrit—schools spring up so that students can learn to decode the sacred text, write out por- tions, and, perhaps, adapt the written language for secular purposes. And in societies where formal academic disciplines have evolved, schools transmit at least the rudiments to those who will need to use those disciplines at work or in their roles as citizens. These institutions differ from informal educational settings in one crucial feature: they transmit material in a setting that is typically remote from where it will ultimately be used (forexample, sailing in the South Seas, or arguing in the law courts, or handling commerce in the marketplace).To use the current jargon, school is largely a “decontextu- alized” setting. Indeed, as our hypothetical television show might docu- ment, schoolrooms around the world resemble one another. For while ‘~ducationall over the world has long featured the transmission of roles Lnd values in appropriate settings, “decontextualized schools” have been
with notations and the mastery ofdisciplines. Humans have used notation to record numerical, calendrical, and religious events for tens of thousands of years. But it is only in the last few thousand years that more sophisticated notational systems have come into widespread use. If individuals are to be able to read, write, and carry out calculations of any complexity, they must spend several years mastering the elements of these literate systems and learning how to use them fluently and flexibly. While some individuals in each society may experience particular-dif-- ficulty in mastering the literacies, most societies have devised pedagogi- cal systems that can effectively transmit “the three Rs” to their young people. Continuing illiteracy in the world is due not to ignorance about how to teach reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic, but rather to the failure to devote adequate resources to these tasks, In China and Cuba, where (as
it happens, under Communist regimes) literacy has become a high pri- ority, it has proved possible to raise the entire population’s level ofliter- acy within a fewdecades. The use of schools to inculcate the disciplines entails more complex considerations. It is important that the history of the group, its religious and moral precepts, and its technical knowledge (about hunting or cooking, weaving or sailing, selling wares or settling disputes) be passed on to succeeding generations. Sometimes such transmission can be done informally, through demonstrations and casual talk “on the scene”; sometimes, as in the case of cultures that have lengthy oral epics in verse, a more formal network of lore must be committed to memory; and, in more recent times, disciplines have- arisen in which formal knowledge is preserved in written and illustrated texts. Within religious settings, these texts are often committed to memory and recited ritual- istically; in secular settings, it is only necessary that the student be able to read the text, derive meanings therefrom, and draw on this knowl- edge when needed (at least, for the test; ideally, for life beyond school, as well). Single texts can be memorized; a single discipline can, perhaps, be learned through an informal apprenticeship. But where familiarity with a family of literacies and disciplines is at a premium, the formal school comes into its full glory. Mere “literacy in decoding” does not suffice. The capacities to read a variety of texts fluently, to be able to write down one’s own summary and reactions, to calculate rapidly and accu- rately, and to use numerical systems for measurement or experiment— all of these require more than a year or two of informal study. (To be sure, a few talented individuals have managed to master these pursuits without much formal guidance; and in milieus where education was available chiefly to boys, girls have traditionally had to learn to read and write surreptitiously or with help from a caring relative.) Our conception of school has been closely linked to the existence of formal written systems, whose mastery was deemed necessary for reli- gious, economic, and social purposes. And as schooling has extended beyond the “basic” primary years, formal education has become equally associated with the mastery of scholarly disciplines ranging from history to theology to science. We have come to assume that mature adults must be versed in several disciplines—able not only to pass written examina- tions but also to use these disciplines’ ways of thinking in their vocations 1,~ (‘ii IJ~’tiS,
It would be misleading, however, to think of traditional educational institutions as merely, or even primarily, instrumental in a narrow sense. To do so would be to commit the sin of presentism—reading back into earlier institutions our current beliefs (or concerns). Rather, such insti- tutions have traditionally foregrounded clear notions of what one should believe, what one should value, and how one should live. Consider, for example, the apprenticeship. An individual enters into a formalized relationship with a specific master and is required to pass through a set of stages before he himself achieves the status ofmaster. In contrast to school, apprenticeship does not merely consist of spending a few hours each day with the master; rather, the apprentice commits himself fully to a single dominant authority figure, signing a contract with the master and even living in his home. He is drawn fully into the hour-to-hour life of the master and his family. Through these contacts, he comes to absorb an entire woridview—what the master believes to be true about the world, what standards a work must meet if the master is to consider it acceptable, and what behaviors are desired, tolerated, and strictly proscribed in and outside the workplace. Or consider the traditional religious school. Typically, the master of the school is a man, often unmarried, who has been selected by the community in part on the basis of his presumed moral virtues, and who is given considerable intellectual and ethical authority over the students. He is expected not only to pass on the culture’s beliefs and traditions be also to embody them in his own being. Even as he has the power to disc pline the students, he will be held accountable if his own behavior dm not conform to communal standards. The special nature of school is well conveyed by the rituals that accompany it. In Jewish tradition, for example, the boy’s first day at the cheder is a joyous occasion.The whole family dresses up and accompanies the lad to school. He is served bread in the shape of letters that have been dipped into honey; the sweetness of learning is coded deeply into the youngster’s limbic system. Let me hasten to add that I am here discussing ideal situations. We know that some masters ruthlessly beat their charges, and some teach- ers blithely ignore their students’ moral failings—and their own, for that matter. Such less-than-perfect realizations have not, however, chal- lenged the fundamental, broad educational vision: a featuring of the true, the beautiful, and the good. This vision, like its intriguing varia- ons , sun Iii be capt ii re I in my hypotbet icaI ed i ,cationa I montage.
also negauvc examples—individuals notorious for their weakness, cow- ardness, arrogance, selfishness, or for a “tragic flaw.” One could judge oneself with reference to these human (or superhuman) landmarks, and - teachers could help students see how they approached these ideals, and how they fell short. Classical cultures also looked to certain disciplines as particularly im- portant in the formation of the whole person: thorough knowledge of certain key texts; the mastery of music and poetry; the training of the body (through gymnastics or riding or marksmanship, for example); and at least the rudiments of rhetoric, measuring, medicine, music, and as- tronomy. The curriculum, so to speak, may have differed across region and era; but the virtues embedded in its mastery remained remarkably constant through the Middle Ages in the West and the feudal era in China. In attempting to understand these classical views of virtue, we must grasp one point.The ancients did not see the individual as a set of virtues that might or might not be connected. Rather, they took a determinedly holistic view of the person. One attempted to achieve excellence in all things, continued to strive throughout life, and sought, as well, to be an integrated and balanced human being. Either a person represented an integration of these intellectual, physical, ethical, and aesthetic features, or a person did not. The acquisition of knowledge and skill was seen as the necessary handmaiden for the attainment of moral virtue—the high- est good_in the service of one’s society. Many of us today find it difficult to see the true, the good, and the beautiful as integral parts of the same ensemble. The spheres have become separate. Yet we can still be moved by the concluding lines of John Keats’s “Ode on a Grecian Urn”:
“Beauty is truth, truth beauty”—that is all Ye know on earth, and allye need to know.
Over time, then, educational institutions have had the primary task of conveying to a culture’s young its current take on what is true (and not true); what is beautiful (and what lacks beauty); what is good (and what is evil). More controversial, nowadays, is the proper compass of educa- tion. Few would deny to the school the primary role in the inculcation of knowledge and truth. However, whether schools should be the prin- cipal commnniralors of beauty and goodness is much less c(’rtain. In
cultures where considerable agreement can be found on these issues, their transmission is often ceded to the school; thus, in those European countries with relatively hon’~ogeneouspopulations, students study reli- gion in school and also master formal curricula in the arts. In American society, however, there are both constitutional and cul- tural reasons to bifurcate or trifurcate the educational obligation. Many individuals who readily send their children to community schools balk at the notion that those schools might impart religious or moral instruc- tion; that, they contend, is the task of the home, the church, or the rele- vant institution elsewhere in the community. Organizations like the Boy and Girl Scouts, after-school clubs, and summer camps often step into this breach. And a growing number of Americans are so intent on trans- mitting their own personal value system that they spurn the public schools altogether~preferring religious or home schooling. These cus- tomized forms of education may include a direct rejection of the com- munity’s notions of truth. For example, some parents would challenge generally agreed-upon views about evolution (that it is the best explana- tion of human origins) in favor of the fundamentalist biblical version of human creation. I perceive the situation this way. Once, it was relatively unproblem- atic to inculcate truth, beauty, and goodness through scholastic institu- tions, The consensus that made a “virtue-oriented” education possible has frayed throughout the world, and is especially tenuous in modern and postmodern societies like the United States. Some would conclude that the mission was forlorn anyway and that we are better off not look- ing to schools to transmit these ancient virtues. Here I undertake a sus- tained meditation on the opposite alternative: education must continue to confront truth (falsity), beauty (ugliness), and goodness (evil), in full awareness ofthe problematic facets of these categories and the disagree- ments acrosscultures and subcultures. The concerns may be ancient, but they must be perennially revisited and refashioned. And the academic disciplines remain the best way to pursue this mission,
Perennial Choices
So fai~I have stressed the quartet of purposes that spans educational time and space: to transmit roles; to convey cultural values; to inculcate
mated education: a search within one’s culture for what is true, what is beautiful, and what is good. It is important to recognize, however, that educational institutions have implemented these in various ways. Over time, the pendulum has oscillated between a number of polarities:
perhaps surprising corollary, some (including some American corporate executives) maintain that the best preparation for a rapidly changing ~vorldremains a classical liberal education.
values. While this point of view seems to have originated in America, it is now accepted in most nations of the world, where, indeed, it often extends to the university level.
40 Howard Gardner
and desensitize individuals to their fellow human beings; it can even fo- ment hatred, - On my better days, I hope that this modulated position will allow me to make common cause with a wide range of educators and parents; at hotter moments, I fear that the wrath of all may fall upon me. So be it.
Looking backward across time, and looking, with 360-degree perspec- tive, across wide spaces, we can discern important universal aims of education: transmission of values, modeling of roles, mastery of nota- tions and disciplines. The identification of these aims is important; it is foolish to disregard them as we look ahead to new times and new worlds. However, it is equally myopic to ignore the many enormous changes that are already patent in the world and that will unquestionably affect education and schooling in the years to come.
CHAPTER 3
Education in the Future
~1~\4anners are always declining,” quipped the Roman play- wright Plautus. He could have added, “and the world is always changing... faster and faster.” The vast changes under way in today’s world are familiar to all. In every realm—the professions, business, other places of work, agriculture, transportation, the media of commu- nication, the family, and the home—conditions are palpably different from those of a century or even a quarter-century ago. Downsizing, restructuring, reengineering are fixtures of today’s commercial world; tomorrow’s world will presumably feature these and other as yet unknown innovations. It would be an exaggeration to maintain that schools have not changed in a hundred years. Both in the United States and abroad, there are new topics (such as ecology), new tools (personal computers, VCRs), and at least some new practices—universal kindergarten, spe- cial education for those with learning problems, efforts to “mainstream” students who have physical or emotional problems. Still, apart from a few relatively superficial changes, human beings miraculously trans- ported from 1900 would recognize much of what goes on in today’s classrooms—the prevalent lecturing, the emphasis on drill, the decon- textualized materials and activities ranging from basal readers to weekly spelling tests. With the possible exception of the Church, few institu- tions have changed as little in fundamental ways as those charged with the formal education of the next generation. Contrast this continuity with children’s e’~” ‘-“eside the
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school walls. In modern society children have access to a range ofmedia that would have seemed miraculous in an earlier era (and that still aston- ishes members of less industrialized societies): televisions, cellular phones, personal computers with CD-ROMs, fax machines, videodiscs, personal stereos, and still and video cameras, to name just a few, Youngsters can get in touch instantly with friends, families, and even kind or malevolent strangers all over the world.Youngsters’ habits, atti- tudes, and knowledge are influenced not only—and perhaps not pri- marily_by those in their immediate surroundings, but also by the heroes and heroines presented in the media, particularly those larger- than-life figures who populate the worlds of entertainment and athlet- ics. The visitor from the past who would - readily recognize today’s classroom would have trouble relating to the out-of-school world of a ten-year-old today. I confess that I often experience such difficulties myself. Schools—if not education generally—are inherently conservative institutions, In large measure, l would defend this conservatism. Methods of instruction that have evolved over long periods of time have much to recommend them; and all too many trendy practices prove vapid if not useless or damaging. Educational experimentation has never been wholly absent, but it has occurred chiefly on the margins. In roughly the last century, important experiments have been launched by such charismatic educators as Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, Shinichi Suzuki, John Dewey, and A. S. Neill. These approaches have enjoyed considerable success; indeed, they might impress our hypothet- ical visitor from 1900.Yet they have had relatively little impact on the mainstream of education throughout the contemporary world.
Six Forces ThatWill Remake Schools
It may be risky to say so, but I believe that the present situation is differ- ent. Changes in our world are so rapid and so decisive that it will not be possible for schools to remain as they were or simply to introduce-a--few superficial adjustments. Indeed, if schools do not change quite rapidly and quite radically, they are likely to be replaced by other, more respon- sive (though perhaps less comfortable and less legitimate) institutions. There is precedent for such sweeping change. Three hundred years
ago, schools served only an elite and were primarily religious in charac- ter; but over the next two centuries, they came to serve the wider pop- ulation and to take on a primarily secular coloration. These changes came about because urbanization and industrialization required a reli- able, functionally literate workforce; concomitantly, thereemerged cen- tralizcd educational ministries with explicit educational plans and powers. Demands have once again shifted dramatically. One hundred years ago, it sufficed to have a highly educated elite and a general population with basic literacy skills. Nowadays, however, almost any function that can be executed through the application of regular procedures will sooner or later be computerized.To be attractive to employers, an mdi- ~‘idualmust be highly literate, flexible, capable of troubleshooting and problem-finding, and, not incidentally, able to shift roles or even voca- tions should his current position become outmoded. Nor will societies be able to neglect large portions of their population.To remain compet- itive in a fast-changing world, they will have to deliver a good education to a sizable majority of their future citizens. And they will have to be responsive to at least six sets of trends.
Technological and Scientific Breakthroughs. The most important techno- logical event of our time is the ascendancy of the computer. Computers already play a prominent role in many aspects of our lives, from trans- portation and communication to personal bookkeeping and entertain- ment. Scarcely oblivious to these trends, many schools now have computers with networking capabilities. To some extent, these techno- logical appurtenances have been absorbed into the life of the school, though often they simply deliver the old lessons in a more convenient and efficient format. In the future, however, education will be organized largely around the computer. Not only will much ofinstruction and assessment be delivered by computer, but the habits of mind fostered by computer interactions will be highlighted, while those that fall through the computational cracks may be lost. For example, precise, explicit step-by-step thinking is likely to be enhanced, while fine-grained aesthetic or ethical judgments may be marginalized. At the same time (if somewhat paradoxically), computers will permit a degree of mndividualization—personalize~ coaching or tutoring—which in the past was available only to the richest
well as a possibility, then our definitions of what it means to be a human being, and to be a part of a human society, will be changed forever. Even the laws of’ evolution may have to be reconceived. Science and technology do not merely alter our conceptions of what is true. New roles are spawned and traditional values are challenged. Our array of moral possibilities is altered, and our aesthetic sensibilities I may be affected as well.
Political Trends, With the end of the Cold War, the constitutive assump- tions of twentieth-century international relations have been under- mined. Constant struggle against a powerful military foe no longer provides a motive for education or training; democratic forms of gov- ernment are on the rise; and with readier communication among indi- viduals and nations, certain patterns of human interaction (such as a free press and ready migration) become more attractive, while others (such as censorship or violations of human rights) prove less easy to advocate, Even those of us who cheer these developments recognize their vexed character. There are degrees and types of democracy. The external forms of democracy are more easily imitated than its underlying values, Democratic principles are often honored more in the breach than in the observance, both in the United States and abroad, Indeed, without knowing their sources, many Americans cannot distinguish passages from the Declaration of Independence from quotations drawn from the writings of Marx and Engels. (One wonders how Eastern Europeans would fare on the same test.) The collapse of Communism and the weakening of socialism have not been without their costs. Safety nets on which individuals were counting disappear or become attenuated, and various criminal forces have often inserted themselves into the political vacuum. Ethnic and tribal funda- mentalisms that were hidden or suppressed under totalitarian regimes have returned with unanticipated force. There may be fewer large-scale wars, but there are endless local skirmishes, virulent forms of torture, and even attempts at genocide. Since education is concerned significantly with systems of values, these rapid changes in the political ecology cause strains. Texts, lesson plans, even worldviews have to be altered. Instructors must steer a course among the various isms, racial and ethnic groups, past and
~iftscntpolitical and social values. Consider what it has been like to be a teacher in an Eastern European country over the last fifty years. What was considered true, beautiful, and good in 1950 or even 1990 may not be today; and yet individuals trained in earlier eras—parents no less than teachers—cannot simply shrug off beliefs long since internalized. -~ in the ~s’ordsof the British poet and educator Matthew Arnold, they may bc~Vanderingbetween two worlds—one dead, / The other powerless to be born.” Nor is this feeling of anomie restricted to the former Communist world. As we gain distance from the events of this century, many Western European and American citizens have had to rethink our nation’s roles in major conflicts, such as the Second World War. Many dubious practices—for example, collusion with the Nazis by so-called neutral governments_were denied in years past; now, fifty years later, it is very painful for citizens of a country to come to terms with what they (or their parents or grandparents) did (or failed to do). And para- doxically, those who think of themselves as the most patriotic—for example, members of the right-wing militias in America—end up embracing aestheticstandards and moral values that are discrepant from the democratic values they arc ostensibly committed to defend.
Economic Forces. Even those parts of the world that have little sympathy with democratic institutions and values now recognize the ascendancy of markets and market forces. Everywhere, once “Third World” regions—China and Russia, Iraq and Iran, Africa and Latin America, members ofASEAN and Mercosur—now are ineluctably involved with the new technologies, the buildup ofpowerful corporations, the pursuit of productivity, in sun,, with a sustained, ceaseless competition involv- ing goods and services in an ever more global marketplace. Students must be educated so that they can participate and survive in this unrelentingly Darwinian environment. Such education is easier where capitalism has long been ascendant, either in the official policies of the society or at least “on the street.” But in those societies where cooperation has been stressed over competition, where individuals are encouraged to subdue their own personal passions, and where the state has provided a safety net (often in exchange for political cooperation or silence), adjustment to a dog-eat-dog milieu proves difficult—and n~’ haps distasteful.
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An inescapable part of the new environment—political as well as economic—is globalization. Whereas, earlier, much of the economy operated comfortably at a local level, the period of isolated economic systems is long since past. Multinational corporations, regional trading associations and pathways, international investments and financing are the new realities. Countries must find and press their competitive advantages; they must remain ever vigilant as they alternate between offense and defense in a rapidly shifting economic landscape over which- they can never exert sufficient control. Each day financial institutions circulate one trillion dollars; a sudden drop in the stock market in one nation can trigger billions of’ dollars of losses worldwide within hours, When George Soros speaks, markets quake. Globalization has ecological as well as economic ramifications. Pollution does not observe political boundaries, and efforts to clear up
The market economy works against such endeavors, since the market responds to short-term pressures and profits rather than to longer-term strategic policies and needs. Also, developing countries often perceive~ ecological initiatives as veiled efforts to maintain an uneven playing~ field. But unless one assumes that these matters will somehow take care- of themselves, it becomes an imperative to include ecological as well as~ economic awareness in any curriculum. Though not necessary concomitants, other phenomena tend to accompany the market economy.There is the rush to produce numerous products, which often differ from one another only minimally; the need~ then to describe and advertise these products as !f they were actually dis. 1 tinct from one another; planned obsolescence; a focus on consumption, commercialism, and consumerism. Alas, people do not seem to need “disciplinary training” to enter this world; it seems all too well adapted to deep human proclivities. Indeed, “defensive education” may be neces-
late, the most stylish sneaker, the fastest motorcycle. Finally, with economic growth comes the shift to the information society, the knowledge society, the learning society. More and more people work in the sectors of human services and human resources, and, especially, in the creation, transformation, and communication of knowledge. Workers may well be hired and fired on the basis of what they know, how well they can learn, and what they have contributed,
recently to relevant knowledge bases. No one will be able to rest on past school or educational laurels. Only those who can demonstrate their continued utility in a knowledge-suffused society can expect to reap the rewards of that society indefinitely. In portraying these economic forces, I do not mean to endorse them—I have mixed feelings about them at best—or to indicate that they will be dominant forever, There are many ways to run a society, or a world-.---evera as there are many ways to ruin it! The capitalism ofAdam Smith and Milton Friedman—or of Singapore’s Lee Kuan Yew or China’s Deng Xiaoping—does not exhaust the options. But at least for the foreseeable future, viable alternatives do not exist on the interna- tional scene. Citizens (and especially future citizens) must be primed (or inoculated, if you prefer that metaphor) to participate in the market economy as needed, while perhaps being able to resist its less palatable facets. Perhaps it should not be the job of schools to prepare students for life in a market-dominated world. Certainly other agencies and institutions are more than willing to step into the breach. However, schools cannot be cordoned off from the processeither. Decisions about which skills to inculcate are one consideration; policies about placement, advance- ment, school leaving and school-to-work transition are other places where education meets the economy. How the curriculum highlights or marginalizes economic considerations proves an important variable. Equally telling are the implicit messages of the school community: is the school environment competitive, cooperative, or some amalgam? Ifit~s competitive, does a zero-sum or a win-win mentality prevail? Schools can embody the marketplace or offer an alternative model of how life
writing on the wall is unambiguous, it proves more challenging to di cern the social, cultural, and personal trends of the coming years. On~ can envision a utopia, where individuals will be personally comfortable and secure, able to follow their own desires, to n,ix with whom they like, and to partake of a wider range ~f’ 1 .~~1rp and cultural opportuni--
