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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- It is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal or sign languages in use.
- The object of Discourse Analysis is defined in term of COHERENT sequences of sentences, prepositions, speech and turns or talk.
- It prefers to analyze “naturally occurring” language use and not invented examples.
- If there isn’t COHERENT couldn’t exist Discourse Analysis
- Is a rapidly growing field and it is studied by many academic disciplines (= linguistic, sociology, philosophy….)
- Linguistics say that discourse analysis is “anything beyond the sentence” so the goal of the discourse analysis is to study language text in their social context. TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
- How can we define a text?
- It is a SEMANTIC UNIT, not of form but of meaning.
- It is a PRIMARY LINGUISTIC SIGN.
- It is a FUNDAMENTAL UNIT.
- It is ANY passage spoken or written, of wherever length, that forms a unified whole. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTIC is TEXTURE= the basis for semantic unit and it can be thought as the process whereby a reading position is naturalized by text for listeners and readers. This process involves understanding and expectations about the social context (it modeled through register and genre theory). Its principal feature is COHESION , that distinguishes a text from a disconnected sequence of sentences. Is one of the part of the study of texture, which considers the interaction of cohesion with other aspect of text organization. It can be defined as the set of a resources for constructing relations in discourse which transcend grammatical structure. MEANS OF SEMANTIC COHESION: RECURRENCE , poetry and novel are completely organize on recurrence :
- Repetition= to confirm, to emphasize, to let the text vanish
- Phonetic Recurrence,=rhyme, alliteration..
- Paraphrase or Summarize
COREFERENCE, the base of the coreference is the REFERENCE (when an item in one sentence refers to an item in another sentence)
- Exoforic, outside of the text
- Endoforic, inside the text
LOGICAL CONNECTORS, they are Cataphoric and very good element for prediction
- Conjunction ( but, so, and)
- Adverbs ( beside, first, after, then )
- Syntagms (that is to say…), they can be divided into casual/space/contrastive/
expansive THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH Is based on the idea that learning a language successfully means to use the target language in order to communicate real meaning using natural strategies for language acquisition. A successful learner need to be communicative competent, that means to have : A. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE, it is the knowledge of rules and symbols that provide a formal representation of the underlying syntactic, semantic and phonologic structure of the sentences. B. LINGUISTIC PERFORMANCE, it is the actual use of language in a real-life situation. It is the knowledge of the conventions that govern communication C. CONTEXTUAL IDENTITY, many features of language correlate directly with the characteristics of the context: ANAPHORA, looks back CATAPHORA, looks forward SETTING, time and place in which a communicative act occurs PARTICIPANTS, the people who take part in an interaction and the relationship between them ACTIVITY, the type of activity in which a participant is engaged
English was in the right place at the right time. British political Imperialism has spread English around the world then the American economic supremacy maintained and promoted it. A language can become the official language of a country and could be used also as a medium of communication —> this language is defined as a “second language” because it develops parallel to the mother tongue or “first language”. English is the official language or the second language in over 70 countries. A language can be considered very important in the educational system and to be taught as a “foreign language” THE COMMONWEALTH - THE EUROPEAN UNION In this communities it is essential to communicate through a lingua franca. For this organization’s activities usually a small number of language are chosen as official language. Also the international academy and business communities take in great value a global language. Since the 1950s owing the impressive development which have taken place the technology of our transportation and modern communications people have become more mobile both physically and electronically. DANGERS OF GLOBAL LANGUAGE
- A global language may create an elite monolingual linguistic class. They could
work very easily with it manipulating those who can’t use.
- A global language will make people lazy about learning another language.
- A global language will push the disappearance of minority language
Linguistic power, real risk, who speak a global language as a mother tongue will probably be in a position of power compared to those who have learned it as a foreign language but if a foreign language is taught at the beginning of the education course and if it is maintained continuously the risk largely diminishes. Linguistic complacency, there seems to be a widespread lack of motivation to learn other languages by British and American people and also by a lack of interest for other language. But something is changing with the economic growth of the new areas in the global market. Linguistic death, hundreds of languages have died since humans started to speak. When a language is lost the history and the identity of people is lost. Could anything stop a global language? There should be some cataclysmic scenario for a future in which the universal language is Chinese. Other alternative method to eliminate the need of a global language could be to the automatic translation or machine traslators but it is very far from us so we can state that the position of English is going to become
stronger.
LANGUAGE AND INTERNET
The internet is one of the most remarkable things human beings have ever made. In terms of its impact on society it ranks with print, the railways, the telegraph and television. The web is more a social creation than a technical one. If internet is a revolution, therefore is likely to be a linguistic revolution. Our aim is to explore how the electronic medium is having an effect on language in general, and an individual languages in particularly. The electronic medium presents us with a channel which facilitates and constrain our ability to communicate in ways that are very different from those found in other semiotic situations. GLOBAL VILLAGE NETSPEAK —> people that use internet, that are in a global village The internet is an electronic, global and interactive medium and each of these proprieties has consequences in the language used there. The channel is electronic and the communicative options are constrained by the hardware and software needed and used. There are certain linguistic activities that this medium can facilitate very well and others that can’t handle at all. The heart of the matter about Netspeak seems to be its relationship to spoken and written language. SPEECH OR WRITING Netspeak relies on characteristics belonging to both sides of speech and writing. Web writers have no idea who their readers are going to be and their feedback are similar to any paper writer. E-mail is similar to speech. Both are time governed and they can be delated. But there are several differences between NETSPEAK and a FACE-TO-FACE conversation. The most important is a function of the technology: the lack of an immediate feedback, we send a message when it is complete and there is no transaction between the sender and the receiver. The second problem also results from technology: the rhythm of an internet interaction is very much slower then that found in a speech situation. The time delay is a central factor because we don’t know the time of the gap between the moment of posting of a message and of receiving a reaction. Other differences between NETSPEAK and conversational speak concern prosody and paralanguage expressed through vocal variations in intonation, stress, speed,
C. Perlocutionary act ( l’ascoltatore può dare o meno la mela)
SEARLE
Austin is an American philosopher, he’s famous for his contributes to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and social philosophy. Searle’s work on Speech Act is believed to refine Austin’s conception, because the concept of an illocutionary act is central to the concept of a Speech Act. Austin emphasized the conventional interpretation of speech act while Searle give a more philosophical interpretation. Searle’s achievement was to give substance to Austin’s idea of a general theory of Speech Act by moving beyond this cataloging stage and providing a theoretical framework in which the three dimensions of utterance, meaning and action involved in Speech Act could be seen as unified together. According to Searle the speakers perform speech act by observing two types of rules: REGULATIVE RULES that govern a type of activity that already exist (they take the form of imperative) CONSTITUTIVE RULES that define and regulate new forms of behaviors. The hypothesis that Searle proposed to consider is that “The semantic of language can be regarded as a series of system of costitutive rules and that illocutionary act are act performed with these sets of rules.”
LOGIC AND CONVERSATION
Grice was a British philosopher of language, who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States. Grice defines what are the necessary elements of a successful conversation (either for formal or for natural language) Successful conversations necessitates adherence to an overarching principle “ Cooperative Principle” or CP where we can distinguish for important categories: I. Quantity , which refers to the amount of information communicated II. Quality , which refers to the veracity of the information communicated III. Relation , which refers to the relevance of the information communicated IV. Manners , which refers to the way in which the information is communicated. Grice begins describing two opposing view: FORMAL LANGUAGE (symbolic logic) and NATURAL LANGUAGE (English). He calls those who would emphasize the superiority of formal language
FORMALIST, and those who argue that natural language has certain features which are not possible to supplant INFORMALISTS. After sketching a generalized version of each position, Grice asserts that the apparent difference in meaning is largely illusory and he gives a provisional list of the maxims of Cooperative Principle. IMPLICATURE : it is the additional meaning above and beyond what is said and it could be: -Conventional, the result of a conventional meaning of the words and sentences ( determine in some cases what is implicated )
- Conversational^ , the result of features of discourse (extralinguistic facts, context and cooperative principle)
CORPORA
Corpus—> is a collection of naturally occurring examples of language, consisting of anything from a few sentences to a set of written text or tape recording, which have been collected for linguists study. A Corpus is designed for some linguistic purpose and this couple determined the selection of texts. APPLIED LINGUISTIC: It has referred to the application of linguistic theories to language teaching. Now it refers to the study of language to solve any real-life problem. Our aim is to study what a corpus can do and how corpora are used in applied linguistics. A CORPUS is used language. With corpus softwares we can rearrange and reorder the language experience with new perspective. We can process software packages in 3 ways:
• FREQUENCY, the words in a corpus can be arranged in order of their frequency.
We can analyze the frequency only in a corpus. Or we can compare grammar words, lexical words, registers in different corpora. It can be useful to identify possible differences between corpora. In 1998 a Bank of English corpus was established
• PHRASEOLOGY: We can use a concordance program to access a corpus. With
concordance lines we analyze many instances of use of a word in order to study regularities that tend to remain unobserved in their normal context.
• COLLOCATION: Is the statistical tendency of word to co-occur. A list of
collocates of given word can give the same information provided by
