coherence /cohesion in writing, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

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Coherence – Cohesion in

Writing

Achieving Coherence

• You can make your paragraphs more coherent by ordering

their support according to basic organizational patterns. Three

common patterns are time order, space order, and order of

importance.

• Time order (or chronological order) means simply that the

supporting elements in a paragraph are arranged in the order

in which they occurred or in which the reader would expect

them to occur.

• In paragraphs ordered by time, you must be sure that your

supporting points consistently follow a chronological

sequence and that no important point is left out.

Examples

Example of a Paragraph Written in Chronological Order

Potato Chips in Close Proximity by student at Diablo Valley College, Pleasant Hill, CA

I become disgusted when I'm exposed to people with atrocious manners. I'm sickened when they lick their fingers as they eat. I think it's repulsive when they chew with their mouths open, and I become irritated when they use their teeth to open packages of food. Recently, I went to a movie theater with my family and some friends. Just before the movie started, the friend next to me decided that it was the perfect time to devour a large bag of greasy potato chips. At first , she wrestled to open the bag. She tried pinching and pulling and finally tore it open with her teeth. The bag burst and the top portion of the chips flew everywhere, including on my lap. Every time she stuck her fingers into the bag to get a chip, the bag crackled. Her teeth crunched loudly on each chip and her mouth hung open for everyone to see. As she finished the bag , she licked her fingers. Next she held up her hand to let it dry and I saw her saliva glistening in the lights of the room. Unsightly! Needless to say, when she offered to shake hands with me at the end of the night, I avoided them and gave her a hug.

Examples

• Example of a Paragraph Written in Order of Importance

Exercise Has Many Benefits by student at Diablo Valley College, Pleasant Hill, CA

Do you need motivation to exercise? Here are some effects of exercise that can benefit your life. Exercise can be—gasp—fun! If you are wondering what to do on a Sunday afternoon, go out and find a hiking trail and take the family on a hike. Exercise can add spark to your sex life because it leaves you feeling energized and looking better, which also can stimulate your sex drive. Are you tired of looking like a house? Well, exercise can help you manage your weight. Get outside and shed those unwanted pounds. Aerobic activity also can improve your mood. Maybe you need to blow off some steam. A workout or a 30 minute walk can promote euphoria and calm you down because it stimulates various brain chemicals. Exercise also reduces insomnia, a condition that thwarts concentration and productivity. In addition, cardio activity has been proven to lower cholesterol and high blood pressure, and can decrease the risk of colon and breast cancer. Most importantly , keeping fit combats chronic diseases and premature death.

Achieving Coherence

• Transitional devices add coherence to a paragraph by linking

the ideas in a sentence with those in the next. They remind

the reader of what preceded and signal what is to follow.

• When used effectively, transitional words and phrases can

make the difference between a clearly written and easy-to-

read paragraph and one which is difficult to follow because it

moves abruptly from sentence to sentence.

• When selecting transitional words and phrases for your

paragraphs, be sure to select only those that fit logically and

to use only as many as are needed to make your paragraph

coherent.

Achieving Coherence

• Pronouns add coherence to a paragraph in two ways: they

smooth the flow of the sentences by eliminating awkward

repetition of nouns, and they help to knit a paragraph

together by referring to nouns in previous or following

sentences or sentence parts.

• Use pronouns only when they are needed, be sure that every

pronoun has a clear antecedent and be certain that every

pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number and, if

possible, gender.

• To maintain focus on the controlling idea throughout a

paragraph, writers often repeat key words and phrases that

emphasize this idea.

Achieving Coherence

• If you begin writing in one tense, stick to that tense throughout

your paragraph unless a given context logically requires the use of a different tense.

• Illogical and unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph

disrupt the flow of ideas and detract from the paragraph’s coherence.

• Another way to ensure that your paragraphs are coherent is to

maintain consistency in the person of the pronouns that you use.

• Person depends on the tone you wish to adopt in a paragraph. First-

person pronouns are informal and personal; third-person pronouns are more distant and objective. Most expository paragraphs are written in the third-person.

Achieving Coherence

• In expository writing the pronoun you is used less frequently

than first- and third–person pronouns and is reserved

primarily for instances where the writer is speaking to a

clearly defined audience.

• Remain consistent to the person of the pronouns throughout

the paragraph. Mixing the persons of the pronouns in a single

paragraph, unless there is a clear-cut reason for doing so,

results in awkward shifts in the perspective which can destroy

the coherence of the paragraph.

• Avoid using the indefinite you because it creates vagueness

and an overly casual tone.

Paragraph Unity

• To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things only. First, the paragraph must have a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention, that is, a topic sentence. Secondly, a writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph's body such that (a) it contains more specific information than the topic sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus of attention as the topic sentence.
• This generalization about paragraph structure holds true for the essay in particular. The two major exceptions to this formula for paragraph unity are found in fiction (where paragraph boundaries serve other functions, such as indicating when a new speaker is talking in a story) and in journalism (where paragraphs are especially short to promote 'visual' ease by creating white space).

Sentence Cohesion

To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, consider the following techniques:

• Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat

a word from sentence A.

• Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the

word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'

• Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine.
• Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make

explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier.

• Collocation****. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable

word to connect one sentence to another.

Sentence Cohesion

Addition. Indicates continuation. (and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ... )

Cause and effect. (therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for, ... )

Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. (in fact, indeed, now, ...)

Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. (admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say, ... )

Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. (for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ... )

Examples

• Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase Example: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.
• Synonyms Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.
• Pronouns Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

Parallel Structure

• Parallel structure means using the same pattern of

words to show that two or more ideas have the same

level of importance. This can happen at the word,

phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel

structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions

such as "and" or "or.“

Words and Phrases

• With the –ing form (gerund) of words:

Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

• With infinitive phrases:

Parallel:

Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR

Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or

only before the first one.)