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Esame Transnational English - Parte 1
DAVID CRYSTAL - ‘’English as a Global Language’’ PART I – Why a global language? Why does a global language exist? Today, it is often said that English is the global language —that is, the language used worldwide to communicate between people from different countries. This idea is very widespread, and English seems to “dominate” everywhere, but the reality is more complex. Not everyone speaks English, nor is it the official language everywhere. English spread so far mainly because of the British Empire , but now many people around the world use and adapt it according to their own culture and way of speaking. This sometimes creates tensions : native English speakers might feel protective of their language, while learners can feel powerful but also frustrated or worried about the survival of their native tongues. Language is connected to identity , culture , and politics , so it can cause both problems and opportunities for cooperation. English as a global language raises many debates about its future and what will happen to other languages.
What is a global language? A language becomes global when it is widely used —not only by native speakers but in many different countries. There are two main ways for a language to be global: either by being the official language used in government , schools , and courts (as is the case with English in over 70 countries ), or by being the most widely taught second language , even if it is not official. For example, English is taught as a foreign language in over 100 countries. The reasons why a country chooses a particular language depend on history , politics , economy , and culture. Today, English is the most widely spoken language in the world, with about 1.5 billion people using it well.
How does a language become global? A language doesn’t become global just because many people speak it—it’s because the people who speak it have power : military , political , economic , and cultural. In the past, languages like Latin , Greek , and Arabic spread thanks to military empires. English also became global through the British Empire and later through the economic and cultural power of the United States. Today, technology , trade , and international education help English spread even more. Some say English is easy to learn , but the main reason it is global is the power of its speakers.
Why do we need a global language? There are thousands of different languages in the world. In the past, to speak with people who spoke other languages , translators were used or people learned two languages , but today this is difficult for everyone. So, a common language , called a lingua franca , is used for communication. Sometimes it is a simplified language or the language of a powerful country , like English or French. In 1900 , with the creation of the United Nations and the increase of relations between countries , having a global language became even more important. English is used especially for business , school , and universities because it saves time and money in translation. New technologies and travel have made everything faster and increased the need for a common language.
What are the risks of a global language? Having a global language is useful , but there are also problems. Some fear that only those who speak English well will have more power , that smaller languages will disappear , and that local cultures will be endangered. However, a global language does not guarantee peace and equality ; it can even create conflicts. It is important to teach languages well from an early age to reduce inequalities. Sometimes native English speakers have little interest in learning other languages , but things are changing, especially in the business world. Many languages have already disappeared , but not only because of English. Globalization might instead lead to bilingualism —that is, using both the local language and English to communicate with the world. English adapts and changes depending on where it is spoken, and linguistic diversity can continue even with a global language.
PART II – Why English? The Historical Context English became a global language thanks to a combination of historical and sociocultural factors. From a geographical and historical perspective , English spread around the world through British exploration and colonization. Starting with early voyages to the Americas , Asia , and the Pacific , through the colonial expansion in the 19th century in Africa and Oceania , and then with the adoption of English as an official language in many newly independent states in the 20th century. This vast reach made English a global point of reference. From a sociocultural point of view , English dominates because of its central role in international politics , business , communication , entertainment , media , and education. Fields such as computing and software industries have made English indispensable for many economic and social activities. Thus, the spread of English worldwide has resulted in a variety of forms and uses.
Origins English originated in the British Isles , initially spreading in England and nearby areas. Only towards the end of the 16th century , when there were between 5 and 7 million English speakers , did it begin to expand beyond the British borders. In the 20th century , the number of English speakers grew to about 250 million , especially outside the islands, with a major center in the United States.
America The first English expedition to America , led by Walter Raleigh in 1584 , failed, but the Jamestown colony in Virginia , founded in 1607 , succeeded. In 1620 , the Pilgrims arrived in Massachusetts seeking religious freedom. Different English dialects formed here due to the diverse origins of the colonists. In the following centuries, waves of European immigrants , including Irish , Germans , and Italians , further enriched the linguistic landscape. English became the dominant language , although the growing linguistic uniformity created tensions with the original cultures and languages.
Canada English arrived in Canada in 1497 with John Cabot but spread only in the 1600s thanks to agriculture , fishing , and fur trade. Rivalry with French colonists ended with British supremacy in the 18th century , and many American loyalists took refuge in Canada after the US War of Independence. Today, Canada is officially bilingual , with English and French coexisting and a strong sociolinguistic dynamic , especially in Quebec.
Caribbean English also spread in the Caribbean through sugar plantations and the importation of African slaves. From this mixture, pidgins and creoles based on English developed, spoken mainly by Black populations. However, prestige remained with the “ standard ” English of the British colonists.
Australia and New Zealand British expansion reached the Southern Hemisphere in the 18th century. Australia began as a penal colony in 1788 , while New Zealand was colonized starting from 1790. Both countries developed varieties of English with their own characteristics, influenced by immigration and indigenous languages , particularly Maori in New Zealand.
South Africa English arrived in South Africa with the British in the 19th century and became an official language but had to coexist with Afrikaans and indigenous languages. Although spoken by a minority , mainly in urban areas , English played a key role in education and post-apartheid politics.
South Asia In India and other South Asian countries , English established itself as the language of administration and education during British rule. Today, millions of people speak or understand English, and it remains a key language for the economy , politics , and international communication.
some English because of this exposure. As a result, English is seen as a modern , dynamic language connected to a global lifestyle.
PART X – English as a Global Lingua Franca A central idea in the book is that English today is no longer just the language of native speakers but has become a true lingua franca : a common means of communication among people with different native languages. In this role, English continuously changes , gaining new forms , rules , and vocabulary. Those who use it as a second or third language help create new and diverse varieties.
PART XI – Conclusions David Crystal emphasizes that English will remain the dominant global language for a long time, but its evolution is dynamic and complex. There is no single “correct English,” but many legitimate forms. Global English is a constantly changing language shaped by millions of speakers worldwide. Finally, Crystal stresses the importance of using English consciously , respecting linguistic and cultural diversity , and promoting open and inclusive dialogue.
PAUL JAY - “Transnational Literature”
Part I - The Nation and Beyond The word transnational describes things that go beyond national borders , such as cultural exchange , migration , and international communication. It is different from nationalism , which focuses on one single identity and culture. Transnationalism supports mixed or hybrid identities and shows how cultures are always changing through contact with others. In literature , this approach helps us study how texts are influenced by many cultures, not just one. Scholars like Kwame Anthony Appiah say that cultures are always in motion and that “pure” cultural identity doesn’t exist.
Some people think transnationalism is good because it supports diversity , while others worry it weakens national traditions. But overall, it helps us understand that identities and cultures are shaped both by local roots and global connections.
A related idea is cosmopolitanism , which means feeling part of a global community , not just one country. It promotes respect for all people, across borders , and connects to human rights. It has origins in Ancient Greece and became important during the Enlightenment. However, it has also been criticized because it’s sometimes linked to colonialism or global capitalism.
Transnationalizing Literary Studies Transnational literary studies include areas like multicultural , postcolonial , and world literature. But these categories are not fixed. They are created by critics and scholars , and many writers resist being limited by them.
Traditionally, comparative literature focused on national literatures (especially European ones), but transnational studies look at how ideas move across borders. This approach is more flexible and better suited to today’s globalized world.
Postcolonial studies helped change comparative literature by focusing on history , power , and the legacy of colonialism. It made scholars look at how literature was used during empire-building and how writers from colonized countries responded using the languages and styles of the colonizers. These authors created hybrid works that mixed cultures and challenged colonial power. Postcolonial literature and transnational literature often overlap , but they are not the same. Postcolonial literature focuses more clearly on colonial history and resistance.
Border Studies , starting in the 1960s, examined how borders (like between the U.S. and Mexico) affect culture , identity , and belonging. It later expanded to explore symbolic and cultural borders that create mixed and fluid identities.
Globalization Studies looks at how global systems —like trade , technology , and migration —affect literature. Globalization helps ideas and books spread but can also lead to Western dominance. However, it also allows new cultural forms to emerge.
Diaspora Studies focuses on people who live far from their original homeland. These communities mix their original and new cultures , creating hybrid identities. Diasporic writers often talk about the struggles between tradition and modernity , and this connects closely to transnational and postcolonial literature.
Together, these fields show how movement , borders , and global change shape literature. They highlight how cultures mix and how literature reflects the complex identities of our globalized world.
What is Transnational Literature?
It’s not easy to define transnational literature , because most literature today circulates internationally. Unlike specific categories like Romantic or Postcolonial, transnational literature is not tied to one historical moment. It is more about themes like movement , identity , migration , and global interaction.
The idea of world literature began with Goethe , who believed literature was a global art form. But during the 19th century, with the rise of nation-states and colonialism, literature became more national. Only recently, thanks to globalization and postcolonialism, scholars have returned to the idea that literature can cross borders.
However, the study of world literature often puts Western works at the top (as "classics"), which creates problems. Transnational literature is more specific: it responds to modern history— decolonization , migration , global politics , and technology. It comes mostly from the Global South and focuses on people who live between two or more cultures. Key features of transnational literature:
- Mobility – Characters move between countries or cultures.
- Marginal voices – Writers from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, etc.
- Critique of Eurocentrism – It challenges Western views and focuses on diverse perspectives.
- Global forces – It shows how politics, history, and technology affect identity.
Writers like Amitav Ghosh , Jhumpa Lahiri , Aleksandar Hemon , and Mohsin Hamid show these traits in their work. Their stories often deal with themes of displacement , belonging , and cultural mixing.
In conclusion, transnational literature is different from world literature because it looks deeply at the real-life experiences of migrants and refugees, shaped by political and technological forces. Literature helps us understand these issues in personal, emotional, and artistic ways—adding something special that social sciences cannot fully capture.
Part II – Reading Transnational Literature
Mobility In transnational literature, movement is very important. This can be people who choose to move or those who are forced to leave their homes. Many stories show people traveling across difficult places or escaping poverty, war, or danger. Migration has always been a part of human life, even before countries and borders existed. Today, migration happens more often because of globalization, inequality, and conflict.
In The Hungry Tide by Amitav Ghosh, we see b oth real and symbolic examples of migration. The story takes place in the Sundarbans, a changing area between India and Bangladesh. This setting shows how identities and cultures also shift. The novel follows Kanai , a journalist; Piya , an Indian-American scientist; and Fokir , a local fisherman. They all come from different backgrounds and meet in this uncertain place. The book also tells about a real event—the Marichjhapi massacre —where many refugees were forced to leave. The changing land in the story reflects how the characters’ identities are also changing. Piya, for example, lives between Indian and American cultures. Ghosh shows how people, cultures, and nature are all connected and always moving.
Cosmopolitanism The paragraph explores the concept of cosmopolitanism , highlighting its emergence and evolution , especially in relation to transnationalism. Cosmopolitanism is understood as openness to cultural differences , inclusivity , and rejection of narrow-mindedness , promoting a global citizenship beyond national borders. It opposes nationalism , which often fosters prejudice and xenophobia , and sees culture as inherently hybrid and syncretic. Politically, it tries to reconcile national sovereignty with human rights.
Historically, cosmopolitanism dates back to ancient philosophers like Diogenes and the Stoics , who viewed citizenship as a commitment to humanity rather than a political entity. It gained prominence during the Enlightenment , with figures like Goethe linking it to a universal human condition through world literature.
Despite its positive aspects, cosmopolitanism has controversial ties to colonialism, imperialism , and globalization’s negative effects. Critics like Walter Mignolo warn against Western cosmopolitanism’s cultural superiority and voyeurism , advocating for a “critical cosmopolitanism” that amplifies marginalized voices through intercultural dialogue and “border thinking.” Enrique Dussel also critiques its Eurocentric modernity.
The paragraph then critiques the “transnational euphoria” tied to uncritical optimism about technologies like the Internet , linked to global neoliberalism. Scholars like Walter Goebel and Saskia Schabio argue for more grounded, critical, and “bottom-up” cosmopolitanism , as promoted by Paul Gilroy. Similarly, Françoise Lionnet and Shu-mei Shih propose a “minor” transnationalism that centers horizontal connections between minority cultures , resisting Western dominance and allowing cultural hybridity without a dominant mediator.
These critical perspectives are reflected in transnational literature , such as Amitav Ghosh’s The Hungry Tide and Nadine Gordimer’s The Pickup , where cosmopolitan characters reveal tensions of global ideals and cultural alienation.
In summary, cosmopolitanism is a complex, evolving concept balancing inclusivity with historical and power-related contradictions , central to ongoing debates about culture, identity , and globalization.
BENEDICT ANDERSON - ‘’Imagined Communities’’ The introduction explains that nations and nationalism are not natural or ancient, but are created by people over time. They started to develop especially around the late 1700s , and once created, they could be shaped to fit many different political and cultural situations. Even though nationalism is powerful and emotional , it doesn’t come from a big, deep theory like other ideologies (such as liberalism or socialism ). Instead, it's based on how people imagine their community.
Anderson calls a nation an imagined political community. It’s “imagined” because people will never know or meet most of the other people in their country, but still feel connected to them. Nations are also “limited,” because they have borders , and “sovereign,” because they want political independence. Most of all, nations create a strong feeling of brotherhood , which makes people willing to make sacrifices —even die —for their country.
Nationalism creates deep emotional feelings. One example is the importance of national monuments , like tombs of Unknown Soldiers. These don’t hold a real person, but represent all citizens who died for the country. These symbols show how people feel strong loyalty to something abstract. Nationalism, then, helps people find meaning in life, especially after religion began to lose influence during the Enlightenment. It replaces older beliefs with a new sense of destiny and belonging.
Anderson explains that nationalism appeared as a cultural response to changes in the modern world. As people stopped believing in divine kings , sacred history , and traditional languages , nationalism helped them form new identities. A big part of this change came from the rise of print capitalism —when books and newspapers were produced in large numbers and sold for profit.
By the 1500s , the number of printed books had grown rapidly. This helped spread ideas and made information more available. Capitalism also pushed publishers to print in local languages (vernaculars) instead of Latin , so they could sell more books. This helped people form a stronger sense of community based on language. Three main things helped this process:
-Print Capitalism – Books printed in local languages helped connect people who spoke those languages, even if they didn’t know each other. -The Reformation – Martin Luther used printing to spread his ideas in German. This broke the Church’s control and gave people new ways to think about religion and society. -Administrative Vernaculars – Governments started using local languages for official purposes , which also helped create national identities.
These changes weren’t part of a big plan. They happened slowly and naturally, as a result of economic , religious , and political transformations.
The fall of Latin and the rise of national languages had several causes: -Latin’s Decline – Latin became harder to understand and less useful. The Reformation and rise of vernaculars also weakened its power.
- Capitalism + Printing – Together, they helped spread standard languages and connected large groups of people. -Print-Languages – Print created “standard” languages that were different from local dialects. These made people feel they belonged to the same group. -Fixity and Prestige – Printed languages stayed the same over time and gained status. This helped build national pride.
Historical Context – In the 1700s and 1800s , especially in the Americas , new countries were forming. These countries created national identities different from old empires and monarchies. In conclusion , the growth of nationalism was strongly linked to capitalism , printing , and language diversity. These forces helped build the idea of nations as imagined communities , where people feel united even if they’ve never met.
HANDOUT MANNUR AND JANA EVANS BRAZIEL - ‘’Diaspora’’
1. Setting the terms / Feminist possibilities
The chapter discusses how feminist and queer scholars have redefined diaspora studies by showing the connections between gender , sexuality , race , and imperialism. It explains how diaspora studies changed from simply about movement and return to a more critical view of migration using ideas of racism , sexism , and homophobia.
An important influence is Paul Gilroy’s book, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Gilroy offered a transnational view of African diasporic cultures and criticized nationalist ideas. His idea of the "Black Atlantic" shows cultural and historical connections between Africa , Europe , and the Americas , against fixed identities.
However, the chapter critiques Gilroy for ignoring the Haitian diaspora , making his view incomplete. Samantha Pinto also criticizes him for not including women’s voices , showing a problem in diaspora studies where feminist views are often ignored and male-centered stories are more common.
Lisa Lowe’s feminist work looks at gendered migration and labor , focusing on horizontal connections (equal relationships) instead of patriarchal models. Her ideas give a more detailed way to understand diaspora.
Saidiya Hartman also challenges traditional diaspora views. In her memoir Lose Your Mother , she searches for her ancestral past in Ghana , but finds loss and the pain of history , not a perfect "home". Hartman’s feminist view shows the limits of stories about return and redemption , and offers a critical way to think about diaspora and memory.
4. Contesting Fixed Notions of Diaspora: Diaspora should not be seen as fixed , but always changing. New ways of thinking should allow for many connections and multiple identities , not just focus on movement and displacement. 5. Political and Theoretical Implications: It’s important to think about both the movement of people (like deportation ) and what it means to stay in place. How nations make and enforce policies affects people’s lives, and this needs to be part of diaspora studies.
Diaspora studies must become more inclusive and critical , taking into account differences of gender, race, and sexuality , and moving beyond old masculine and nationalist perspectives. Only in this way can we truly understand what it means to live in a diasporic condition today.
ARJUN APPADURAI - ‘’Modernity at large’’ Arjun Appadurai, in his book Modernity at Large (1996), talks about how the world is changing because of globalization. He explains that today, the creation of values , symbols , and identities is no longer strongly tied to one place or nation. Instead, these things move and change across the globe. He identifies five important types of global flows , which he calls landscapes or " -scapes ":
- Ethnoscapes : These are the movements of people — such as migrants , tourists , refugees , and exiles — who constantly move from one country to another. This movement changes the way people think about home, identity, and belonging.
- Technoscapes : These are the global flows of technology. Technologies — both high-tech and low-tech — now spread quickly across the world, crossing borders and changing how people work and live.
- Financescapes : This refers to the movement of money. Today, money moves very fast around the world — through stock markets , banks , and trading — and this affects the economies of all countries, even with small changes in value.
- Mediascapes : These are the images and stories spread through TV , movies , internet , and news. Media gives people around the world ideas and imaginations about different cultures, lifestyles, and even politics. These media images often mix fiction and reality , especially for people who have never seen those places in real life.
- Ideoscapes : These are political ideas and beliefs — like freedom , democracy , and rights — that travel across countries. Different countries understand and use these ideas in different ways, depending on their history and culture. The way people interpret these ideas can cause confusion or even conflict , especially when different cultures or languages are involved.
Appadurai says that these five flows don’t look the same from every point of view. They depend on history , language , politics , and who is looking at them — whether it's a government, a business, a group of migrants, or a small local community.
These global flows create what he calls imagined worlds. People around the world now live in their own imagined versions of the world, shaped by the media they watch, the people they meet, and the ideas they believe in. And sometimes, these imagined worlds challenge or resist the “official” ideas coming from governments or big institutions.
The suffix "-scape" is used to show that these landscapes (like ethnoscapes, mediascapes, etc.) are not fixed or regular. They have fluid and changing shapes , just like global fashion trends or the movement of money. These "-scapes" don’t look the same to everyone. Instead, they are seen differently depending on who is looking and where they are coming from.
Different people — such as governments , big companies , immigrant communities , local groups , or even families and neighborhoods — will understand and experience these landscapes in different ways. That’s because their views are influenced by history , language , and politics.
These landscapes are the basic parts of what Appadurai calls "imagined worlds" (a term inspired by Benedict Anderson's "imagined communities"). Imagined worlds are the many different ways people around the world imagine life , based on their own background and situation.
Today, many people live in these imagined worlds — not just in national communities — and this gives them the power to question or even challenge the official ideas or systems around them.
Esame Transnational English - Parte 2
CHIMAMANDA 'NGOZI ADICHIE - ‘’The Thing around Your Neck’’ Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's ‘’The Thing Around Your Neck’’ (2009) is a powerful collection of 12 short stories that explore the emotional and cultural complexities of life in Nigeria and the Nigerian diaspora. The stories are centered on themes of identity, displacement, gender, and the interplay between personal lives and larger political or social forces. Most of the protagonists are women who navigate the tensions between their Nigerian heritage and the Western worlds they often find themselves in. We focus on the sixth ‘’Jumping Monkey Hill’’, the seventh ‘’The Thing Around Your Neck" and the eighth "The American Embassy".
Story 6: "Jumping Monkey Hill" The story is set in a writing workshop for African writers, held at a luxury resort near Cape Town, South Africa. The main character is Ujunwa , a young Nigerian woman who has been selected to attend this supposedly prestigious event, which is sponsored by a British organization.
The workshop is led by Edward , an older British man who claims to be an expert in African literature. But from the beginning, it’s clear that he is condescending , patronizing , and deeply racist. He makes uncomfortable and sexist comments to Ujunwa, stares at her body, and constantly questions the “authenticity” of the stories presented by the African writers—especially the stories told by women or stories that don’t fit his stereotypical view of Africa.
Ujunwa writes a short story about a young Nigerian woman who loses her job because she refuses to sleep with her boss—a story based on her own experiences. But Edward dismisses it, saying it’s “not believable” and “agenda-driven.” He prefers stories with “real” African experiences —poverty, war, tribal conflict—things that match what he thinks Western readers want to hear.
Throughout the workshop, Ujunwa feels increasingly angry , powerless , and frustrated. She realizes that African writers are expected to tell certain types of stories to satisfy Western tastes. In the end, Ujunwa stands up and walks out —a small act of rebellion , but one that affirms her voice and integrity.
Analysis “Jumping Monkey Hill” is a satirical story about representation , power , and voice in the world of literature. One of the central themes is who gets to decide what is “authentic” in African literature. Edward, as a white man from England, claims to know more about African stories than the African writers themselves. He gatekeeps the narrative, choosing what is valid and what is too political or too modern. This shows how colonial attitudes still persist in cultural spaces—even when they seem progressive on the surface.
The story also explores racism and sexism. Edward’s behavior toward Ujunwa is both racist and misogynistic. He treats her like an object , makes offensive remarks, and refuses to take her work seriously. His comments are disguised as intellectual criticism, but they are rooted in prejudice and ignorance.
Another important theme is the silencing of African voices. The writers are selected, brought to a beautiful place, and given the illusion of freedom—but they are not truly free to tell their own stories. They are being
The story also deals with the immigrant experience —the feeling of being stuck between two places. Akunna doesn’t feel like she belongs in America, but she also doesn’t know if she can return to Nigeria. She is caught in a kind of cultural limbo , unsure of where she truly belongs.
And finally, the metaphor of “the thing around your neck” is very powerful. It represents the invisible weight that Akunna carries—the emotional pain, the fear, the homesickness, and the pressure of being far from home in a world that doesn’t fully accept her. This "thing" is not just hers—it reflects the experience of many who feel unseen and unheard.
Themes -Immigration and alienation: The story explores the loneliness and cultural shock experienced by a Nigerian woman in the United States.
- Power and gender dynamics: The protagonist faces emotional and relational difficulties, especially in her interactions with her American boyfriend.
- Identity and self-discovery: The woman struggles to reconcile her Nigerian identity with her new life abroad.
- Stereotypes and expectations: The “thing” around her neck symbolizes the invisible pressures and misunderstandings immigrants face.
Story 8: "The American Embassy" The story is set in Nigeria , after the civil war , during a time when the military had strict control over the country. The main character is a nameless woman who is standing in line at the American Embassy in Lagos , trying to get an asylum visa. As she waits, a man asks her if she wants to exchange money, but she cannot focus—she keeps remembering the traumatic events of the past few days. The story is told through a series of flashbacks , which connect the present with the past.
Her husband , a journalist , had written an article that criticized the government and called for democracy in Nigeria. Because of this, he was in danger and had to leave the country, with help from his wife. She stayed behind with their 4-year-old son , Ugonna.
A few days before the scene at the embassy, some soldiers came to their home looking for her husband, probably to kill him. The woman lied and said she didn’t know where he was. In response, they harassed her. When the child started to cry and scream in fear, one of the soldiers shot him. The soldiers ran away, leaving her alone with her dead son.
She is one of the few people allowed to have an interview at the embassy that day. A man behind her in line tells her to exaggerate her story—he says she should describe the violence of the government, and especially talk about how her child was murdered , to get the visa. But during the interview, she realizes she doesn't want to use the death of her son as a tool to get asylum. She refuses to talk about Ugonna and decides to stay in Nigeria , where she plans to plant flowers on her son’s grave instead of leaving.
Analysis This story explores several important themes. First of all, it speaks strongly about the experience of women , especially within the family. In this case, the man has the f reedom to escape and protect himself, while the woman is left behind to face the real consequences of his actions. The story shows how women are often trapped in the domestic space , expected to care for the children and deal with the aftermath of political danger, while men have more choices and mobility.
The story also highlights the role of motherhood. The narrator finds her identity and her sense of purpose in being a mother. When she loses her child, she feels like she has lost everything. This is why she refuses to use his death as a tool to gain freedom. She decides not to run away , even if it means turning down the chance to escape. For her, staying close to her son’s grave is more meaningful than starting a new life somewhere else.
Another key point in the story is how violence has become normal in Nigeria. People are so used to fear and danger that it no longer shocks them. One character is even described like palm oil , a common cooking ingredient—this comparison suggests that violence is now as ordinary as food , something that no longer surprises or scares people.
It’s also important to mention the choice of making the narrator anonymous. Adichie often does this in her stories to make the character feel more universal —she could be any woman, any mother. By not giving her a name, the reader is invited to see the story not just as one person’s tragedy , but as something many women might experience. Interestingly, the only person named in the story is the son, Ugonna , which may suggest that he is the real emotional center of the narrative, while the mother is simply the one telling his story.
Themes -Political oppression and violence: The story shows how a military regime controls people through fear and brutality. -Trauma and loss: The protagonist suffers the violent death of her child and the pain of living with that loss. -Gender and family roles: The woman is tied to her home and family, while the men have more freedom to escape danger. -Identity and belonging: Despite the desire to leave, the protagonist ultimately chooses to stay connected to her homeland.
SAGGIO CRITICO - DR AGNES WOOLLEY - ‘’Narrating the ‘Asylum Story’: Between Literary and Legal Storytelling’’ (come in The American Embassy) This essay explores how legal and literary stories are connected in the asylum process. It argues that asylum seekers must follow a specific kind of story — called the "asylum story" — in order to be accepted as refugees. This story is shaped by legal rules and official expectations. For example, under the 1951 Refugee Convention , people asking for asylum must tell a clear , consistent , and provable story of persecution to receive protection. But this process limits how they can share their real experiences.
The essay criticizes how strict this storytelling structure is. It focuses too much on facts and historical truth , and often ignores the emotional side of people’s stories. One problem is that personal and cultural stories — like life before leaving home and deeper feelings — are often left out of asylum interviews. Instead, the system prefers a simple version of events. This forces asylum seekers to fit into a narrow idea of victimhood , which can make their real experience feel less true.
Using Joseph Slaughter’s work on literature and human rights , the essay shows that literary stories (like novels or fiction) offer a different way to talk about asylum. While literature still cares about truth , it allows for a deeper , more complex picture of what refugees go through. One example is Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s short story The American Embassy. In the story, a woman is applying for asylum in the U.S., but she chooses not to tell all the details of her trauma during her interview. By staying silent , she pushes back against the system’s demand for a clear and emotional story. This shows a flaw in the system: it values how well a story fits the rules more than whether it feels true or real.
The essay also talks about how refugee stories are used in media and advocacy (like in charity campaigns). These stories are often told in the same narrow way as in legal settings, which can be unfair. It reduces refugees to symbols of pain , instead of showing their full humanity and experiences.
Another important point is about ethical witnessing — how others (like readers or viewers) listen to refugee stories, especially in theater or fiction. Even plays like The Asylum Monologues that aim to help can make people feel like they have to judge whether the stories are real or believable. Novels like Henning Mankell’s The Shadow Girls and Dave Eggers’ What is the What? explore how hard it is to tell refugee stories, especially because of trauma and memory loss. They show that the line between fiction and truth is not always clear — but that doesn’t make the stories less important.
-Migration and displacement: Living far from home affects people emotionally.
- War and politics: The India-Pakistan war influences fears and actions.
- Identity and belonging: Lilia and Mr. Pirzada show different experiences of culture and adaptation.
- Separation and loss: Being away from family creates pain and longing.
- Cross-cultural connection: Friendship and kindness can connect people from different backgrounds.
Sexy “ Sexy ” is about Miranda , a young American woman working in New York City. She starts an affair with Dev , an Indian man who is married to Sarah. Their relationship is complicated and unstable because Dev is distant both physically and emotionally.
Dev talks about his family and marriage problems , but Miranda does not fully understand the situation. She enjoys the attention and excitement of being desired , but she is naive about Dev’s commitments and her own role in the affair.
The turning point comes when Miranda meets Laxmi , Dev’s niece , who explains that Sarah is hurt and upset by the affair. This makes Miranda realize the emotional consequences of her actions and that her choices affect others.
In the end, Miranda feels a painful self-awareness. She understands that chasing desire has led her into a hollow and lonely relationship. The story shows how desire , loneliness , and self-deception can change identity and affect how we understand our needs.
Analysis “ Sexy ” explores desire , identity , and self-deception. Miranda’s affair with Dev shows how passion can make people blind to the real truth of their relationships. The story highlights that the excitement of being wanted can hide the need for honest emotional connection.
At first, Miranda feels thrilled , but over time she feels empty , showing the loneliness in shallow relationships. Lahiri shows that people can use desire to escape insecurities , but this often leads to alienation.
Meeting Laxmi gives Miranda a view of the other side — the family hurt by the affair. This makes her face the emotional consequences of her choices and understand that relationships are never isolated.
The story also shows cultural differences. Dev’s Indian background and being married make the relationship more complicated , showing tensions between culture and personal desire. Lahiri critiques the idea of the “exotic other” in interracial relationships. Miranda is partly drawn to Dev because he is foreign , but this fascination can hide deeper emotional disconnects.
Themes -Desire and loneliness: Desire can cause isolation if there is no real emotional depth.
- Identity and self-deception: People can lie to themselves about their needs and the nature of their relationships.
- Cultural difference and misunderstanding: Relationships between different cultures can cause miscommunication.
- Consequences of infidelity: Affairs affect not just lovers but also families and communities.
- Search for connection: The story shows the human need for intimacy and the difficulty of finding genuine connection.
The Third And The Final Continent “The Third and Final Continent ” tells the story of a Bengali man who moves to the United States in the 1960s for work. The main character, whose name we never learn, is reserved and introverted. He leaves
India to find better opportunities and a better life. In Boston , he feels lonely and alienated , a common immigrant experience.
At first, he shares an apartment with Mrs. Croft , an elderly American woman who is devout and traditional. Their polite relationship shows his first contact with American society and the start of his adaptation.
Soon after, he marries Mala , an Indian woman in an arranged marriage. At first, their relationship is formal and distant , but it grows into affection , showing how he builds a home and family in America. By the end, he sees the U.S. as his “ third and final continent ,” a place of belonging and stability.
Analysis The story explores migration , identity , loneliness , and the search for belonging. The protagonist shows the challenges immigrants face when adapting to a new culture while keeping their heritage. Mrs. Croft represents traditional America but also helps him understand and accept his new life.
The relationship with Mala shows how emotional bonds and family help him feel at home. Lahiri uses simple but deep prose to show the complexity of cultural displacement and the human need for stability.
Themes -Migration and Adaptation: Moving between countries and cultures, learning to fit in.
- Identity and Belonging: Belonging is about relationships and emotional connections , not just geography.
- Loneliness and Connection: Isolation at first, later friendship and family help overcome it.
- Change and Continuity: Accepting America as home while respecting origins.
The Namesake “The Namesake” is about Gogol Ganguli , the American-born son of Bengali immigrants. He struggles with his cultural identity and feels caught between his parents’ culture and American society. His name , taken from the Russian author Nikolai Gogol , symbolizes this struggle.
Gogol often feels embarrassed and disconnected from his Bengali roots , especially as a teen and young adult. He tries to fit in by changing his name and ignoring some family traditions. Over time, through marriage , career , and family loss , he begins to value his heritage and the sacrifices his parents made. The story shows the tension between tradition and modern life.
Analysis The novel explores the immigrant experience , especially identity and belonging. Gogol’s discomfort with his name shows the struggle many children of immigrants face. Lahiri highlights how names and traditions carry emotional and cultural meaning. The story also looks at family relationships and how identity develops over time.
Themes -Identity and Self-Discovery: Finding a personal identity that respects both heritage and self.
- Cultural Conflict and Assimilation: Balancing Bengali traditions with American life.
- Family and Belonging: The importance of family and roots.
- Names and Meaning: Names reflect identity and culture.
- Loss and Change: Losses shape Gogol’s growth and acceptance of both cultures.
SAGGIO CRITICO - RAFFAELLA MALANDRINO - ‘’Orizzonti di transito. L’opera di Jhumpa Lahiri tra l’Italia e gli Stati Uniti.’’ Il libro analizza in profondità il percorso letterario di Jhumpa Lahiri, evidenziando il suo viaggio transculturale tra gli Stati Uniti e l’Italia. L’opera esplora i temi della migrazione, dell’identità e della negoziazione culturale, soffermandosi sull’uso simbolico della lingua, dei dettagli narrativi e degli elementi visivi nei testi della scrittrice. Temi e Concetti Principali:
Analisi di Opere Chiave di Jhumpa Lahiri: Interpreter of Maladies (1999): -La raccolta d’esordio esplora il tema della comunicazione (spesso fallimentare) tra personaggi divisi da barriere culturali, generazionali e linguistiche. -Racconti come Mrs. Sen's e Sexy utilizzano il cibo, l’abbigliamento e lo spazio domestico per rivelare le tensioni identitarie e il senso di alienazione dei protagonisti.
The Namesake (2003): -Il romanzo narra la storia di Gogol Ganguli, un figlio di immigrati bengalesi che lotta per trovare il proprio posto tra la cultura indiana e quella americana. -Attraverso il tema del nome, Lahiri esplora il conflitto tra il desiderio di assimilazione e il bisogno di preservare le proprie radici.
Unaccustomed Earth (2008): -La raccolta amplia il focus sulle relazioni intergenerazionali, esplorando le tensioni tra i valori tradizionali indiani e le aspirazioni occidentali dei figli. -Malandrino analizza racconti come A Choice of Accommodations, che affronta il tema dell’alienazione razziale e culturale attraverso il personaggio di Amit Sarkar.
Contesto Culturale e Letterario:
1. Globalizzazione e Migrazione: -Lahiri descrive le esperienze frammentate e spesso contraddittorie dei migranti, catturando le tensioni tra il desiderio di mobilità globale e il bisogno di radicamento culturale. 2. Femminismo e diaspora: -Le donne delle storie di Lahiri si trovano a dover sfidare le norme patriarcali, sia nella diaspora che nei paesi d’origine. La scrittura di Lahiri illumina la doppia marginalizzazione che queste donne affrontano. 3. Lingua e creatività: -La decisione di Lahiri di scrivere in italiano è vista come un atto di ribellione e di reinvenzione artistica, un modo per sfuggire alle categorie restrittive imposte dalla sua identità anglofona e diasporica.
Conclusione: Raffaella Malandrino offre un’analisi ricca e stratificata dell’opera di Jhumpa Lahiri, evidenziando come la scrittrice riesca a catturare le complessità della migrazione e della transnazionalità. L’opera celebra Lahiri come una voce globale capace di sfidare le etichette culturali, ma critica anche il modo in cui il mercato editoriale e la critica mainstream tendono a semplificare o a depoliticizzare le sue storie.
SAGGIO CRITICO - KEITH WILHITE - ‘’Blank spaces: outdated maps and unsettled subjects in Jhumpa Lahiri’s Interpreter of maladies’’ Wilhite’s essay explains how maps in Lahiri’s stories show how identity is never fixed but always changing. Maps can be real or symbolic , and they help us see how characters feel lost, displaced, or confused in a new world.
“When Mr. Pirzada Came to Dine” Lilia feels caught between India and America. Her father’s old map of India shows how the country has changed and how history and politics affect identity. Mr. Pirzada’s story about the war makes her realize that identity is complicated and connected to the world.
“Sexy” Miranda, who is having an affair with Dev, struggles to understand herself and her relationship. Maps in her
life show that her identity is unsure. Walking through Boston at the end is like her remapping herself —understanding who she really is.
Main ideas: -Identity is always changing and shaped by history, culture, and race.
- Outdated maps show gaps between the past and present. -Characters feel both belonging and alienation. -Lahiri uses maps to show how people deal with migration, culture, and relationships.
AMITAV GHOSH - ‘’The Hungry Tide’’ The story happens in the Sundarbans , a dangerous area of rivers and forests in India and Bangladesh. The main characters are Piya , an Indian-American scientist; Kanai , a businessman from Delhi; and Fokir , a local fisherman. Piya comes to study dolphins but doesn’t know the local ways. Fokir helps her navigate the rivers, and Kanai reads his late uncle’s notebook.
The novel shows differences between modern knowledge and local knowledge. Piya and Kanai use maps and GPS, while Fokir understands the land and water intuitively. The Sundarbans is beautiful but dangerous, and people must be careful to survive.
It also shows problems caused by modern development. The book mentions the Morichjhãpi massacre, when Bengali refugees were forced to leave by the government. The story explores how poor and marginalized people are often ignored or hurt.
Analysis
The Hungry Tide shows how the Sundarbans is always changing, making it hard to feel at home. This mirrors the lives of refugees and poor people, who never feel completely safe or settled.
The novel criticizes modernization and government projects like dams or industrialization when they harm the poor instead of helping them. Often, the state ends up excluding people rather than protecting them.
A key part of the story is indigenous knowledge and myths. Bon Bibi, a local deity, protects everyone and shows a fair and caring way to live with nature. Fokir, though poor and illiterate, understands the land deeply. Piya and Kanai, as outsiders, must learn from him and begin to respect local ways over purely scientific logic.
Themes -Displacement and Marginalization : Shows how refugees and poor people suffer and are ignored, like in the Morichjhãpi massacre.
- Postcolonial Uncanny : The Sundarbans is strange and ever-changing, reflecting a feeling of not belonging.
- Modernity vs. Indigenous Knowledge : Western science and local knowledge are compared, showing that experience and intuition are important.
- Myth and Memory : Stories like Bon Bibi’s teach survival and respect for nature.
- Home and Belonging : Home is fragile; survival is uncertain in a changing place.
- Power and Silence : The novel gives voice to those often ignored, reminding readers of injustice.
SAGGIO CRITICO - PRAMOD K. NAYAR - ‘’The Postcolonial Uncanny: The politics of Dispossession in Amitav Ghosh’s The Hungry Tide’’ In The Hungry Tide , Amitav Ghosh talks about displacement, marginalization, and the idea of home in postcolonial India, using the Sundarbans, a constantly changing landscape, as the setting. Pramod K. Nayar calls this the “postcolonial uncanny” , where the land feels strange and unsafe, like the lives of refugees, Dalits, and poor villagers.
The novel shows how modern development like dams and forced evictions can hurt the most vulnerable people. The Morichjhãpi massacre, when Bengali refugees were violently removed by the government, is a key example of this. Ghosh also compares modern knowledge and local wisdom. Piya and Kanai, who use
