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INTRODUCTION to

English linguistics

Part II

Prof. Michael S. BOYD

Lingua e linguistica inglese (202 2 - 23 ) 5 October 202 2

GENERAL INTRO TO COURSE: theoretical approach

Applied Critical Discourse Analysis to various text types

• HOWS and possible WHYS of language use in longer stretches of naturally occurring language ( text );
• texts are analysed according to various levels of context : we are interested in what is both inside and outside the text (the specific genre , production factors, society, history and culture of text production, etc.);
• a “critical” approach to text analysis is adopted, operating under the assumption that language is a powerful tool for (re)producing social practices (both positive and negative) ;
• powerful speakers (and writers), such as politicians, journalists, media organisations, representatives of legal institutions, international organizations etc., wield power and ideology through text production and propagation.
• evaluating language from an ideological point of view: including the use of propaganda and fake news (Cf. Russian invasion of Ukraine)

GENERAL INTRO TO COURSE: typologies/discourses

Different text typologies (discourses) and genres

A. Language of newspapers and broadcasting ( media discourse ): news

reports, news analyses, editorials, special topic news, evening news, etc.

B. Language of politics and political institutions ( political discourse ): political

speeches, debates, parliamentary debates, press conferences, etc.

C. Language of the law and the judiciary ( legal discourse ): contracts, wills,

statutes, court proceedings, lawyer consultations, jury instructions,

judgments, etc.

GENERAL INTRO TO COURSE: course structure

Combined theoretical and practical approach

Linguistics and Pragmatics; (Critical) Discourse Analysis provide the TOOLBOX to analyse and better understand language in context and language as text Practical activities: text analysis, group discussions and mini- presentations Articles, chapters, readings will be available on Everywhere

Exam

2 in-class/Everywhere exams ( prove in itinere ): December or January (last lesson of semester), 1 hr , written multiple-choice, short answer, etc.; May (last lesson), 2 hrs , Essay-style exam, discourse analysis Or 1 final exam during exam sessions (both parts in 3 hrs )] For LM37: EFL/ESL (4 more credits); Gallai’s lessons 2 nd semester!

Levels of linguistics

Components or levels of linguistics

Components (Levels) of linguistics

Phonology

Phonetics

Morphology Syntax Semantics

Lexical semantics Sentence semantics Discourse semantics

Pragmatics

Levels of linguistic analysis VII

TEXTUAL LINGUISTICS: it is important to study the linguistic context and its

effect on how language is structured, which involves studying language at

the level of text (=anything beyond the sentence that involves language use,

and that is a product of a broader range of social practice).

For example: “a newspaper article is not just a collection of sentences

structured and used in a way consistent with the standards of journalistic

English, but the result of social practices inherent with the media in general”

(Meyer 80).

cohesion, coherence, reference, etc. are all important when considering the

text or discourse level of analysis

Levels of linguistic analysis VIII Discourse: a stretch of language in use, of any length and in any mode, which achieves meaning and coherence for those involved. Discourse Analysis : the use and development of theories and methods which elucidate how meaning and coherence is achieved > DA is concerned not only with language but with all elements and processes which contribute to communication. DA embraces all aspects of language in use, eclectically deploying insights from a variety of traditions to arrive at a rounded and rich interpretation of language in use. Critical discourse analysis (CDA) investigates how language use may affirm and reproduce the perspectives, values and ways of talking of the powerful, which may not be in the interests of the less powerful. The relationship between language, power and ideology is a crucial focal point. CDA consists of an interdisciplinary set of approaches which attempt to describe, interpret and explain this relationship.

Describing English grammar: Word classes (Verbs) VERBS: express actions or states action (dynamic) – verbs that show qualities capable of change: physical ( jump ), mental ( think ), perceptual ( see ), social ( buy ) stative – states of being or processes in which there is no obvious action ( like, love, understand, realise, depend, etc.) Some verbs can have both a dynamic and a stative meaning, e.g. I’m seeing the doctor at ten o’clock. // I see what you mean. I have a lot of free time at the moment. // I’m having a party next week. lexical (verbs) – express meaning in the verb phrase and can function only as the main verb, and they carry the real-world and semantic meaning: I run, I laughed, She danced in public. auxiliary (verbs) – used to construct different timescales, questions and negatives, as well as to add emphasis or give information about the mood or attitude of a speaker/writer; they are the helping verb: they have been running, we would have laughed, she had been dancing when ….

Describing English grammar: Word classes (Modality) MODALS – convey a range of attitudes and moods about the likelihood and/or necessity of an event taking place. Generally divided into two groups: one to do with degrees of certainty or necessity ( epistemic) and others to do with obligation or freedom to act (deontic ). He must be there by now. // He must be there by tomorrow at noon. Possible meanings ability (He can speak English almost fluently.) intention (I think I will go to the movies tonight.) necessity/obligation (You have to be here by 9AM.) permission ( May I go to the toilet?) prediction (That could be Tom. He was supposed to call at this time.) possibility (He may arrive on time.)

Describing English grammar: Word classes (modality) Both epistemic and deontic modality can be further divided into necessity and possibility: Epistemic necessity “It must be raining outside (I can hear the rain).” > In all worlds consistent with my beliefs, it is raining outside. “When you add vinegar to baking soda, it should fizz.” > In all worlds consistent with my reasoning about chemical properties, vinegar added to baking soda fizzes. Epistemic possibility “It may be raining outside (I heard that it was going to rain today).” > In at least one world consistent with my beliefs, it is raining outside. “The doctor has said, they can go to the bathroom.” In at least one world consistent with the doctor’s assessment of their physical capabilities, they go to the bathroom. Deontic necessity “It must rain this week (in order for the crops not to spoil).” > In all worlds consistent with my desires, it rains this week. “You should drive under the speed limit.” > In all worlds consistent with the rules for proper driving, you drive under the speed limit. Deontic possibility “It may rain this week (as far as I’m concerned, I’m not planning any activities that would be spoiled by the rain so I don’t care).” > In at least one world consistent with my desires, it rains this week. “The teacher has said, they can go to the bathroom.” > In at least one world consistent with the teacher’s rules for the classroom, they go to the bathroom.

Describing English grammar: Word classes (Verbs)

PRESENT vs. PAST TENSES

present – used to describe states of affairs and events that occur on a regular basis; also used in sports commentaries, proverbs and sayings past – actions that took place in the past; sometimes used to record indirect/reported speech, or something that is supposed to be happening

FUTURE TIME

simple present modal be going to to be + present participle (present continuous) future perfect

Verbs: Forms 1 English is said to have 12 different tenses:

Verbs: Tense/Aspect I

The four aspects of English:

simple (or zero)

perfect

progressive (continuous)

perfect progressive (continuous)

If the distinction between tense (which relates to time ) and aspect (which

has to do with the internal structure of the action occurring at any time)

are learned and studied separately it is easier to see how the verbal

system in English works

from The Grammar Book , p. 107