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Linguaggio Specializzato: Monoreferentialità, Precisione e Metaphora, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

Università degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata (UNIROMA2)Lingua Inglese

Come i specialisti utilizzano la lingua in relazione ai loro campi professionali specifici. Halliday (1978) introduce tre componenti necessarie per avere un linguaggio specifico: utente specifico, contesto specifico e uso specifico. anche stilistiche categorie come monoreferentialità, precisione e trasparenza, oltre alla creazione di metaphoras. Halliday (1978) introduce anche la teoria del canale, oggetto di comunicazione e tenor. esempi di come i termini possono avere significati differenti in contesti diversi e come la precisione e la trasparenza sono importanti per evitare ambiguità.

Tipologia: Appunti

2019/2020

Caricato il 08/03/2022

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SPECIALISED LANGUAGE:
IT FOCUSES ON HOW SPECIALISTS USE LANGUAGE WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL
FIELD
THERE ARE THREE ELEMENTS WHO WORK TOGETHER IN ORDER TO HAVE A SPECIFIC LANGUAGE: SPECIFIC
USER, SPECIFIC CONTEXT, SPECIFIC USE.
THERE ARE STYLISTIC CATEGORIES FOR DEGREE OF FORMALITY TO THE DIFFERENT MODES OF TEXT
PRODUCTION LIKE WRITTEN AND ORAL SUBDIVIDED INTO COMPOSED AND SPONTANEOUS.
EXIST THE 4 MAXIMS CALL:
QUANTITY
1. MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION AS INFORMATIVE AS IS REQUIRED (FOR THE CURRENT PURPOSES OF THE
EXCHANGE).
2. DO NOT MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION MORE INFORMATIVE THAN IS REQUIRED.
QUALITY TRY TO MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION ONE THAT IS TRUE
1. DO NOT SAY WHAT YOU BELIEVE TO BE FALSE
2. DO NOT SAY THAT FOR WHICH YOU LACK ADEQUATE EVIDENCE
RELATION BE RELEVANT
MANNER BE PERSPICUOUS
1. AVOID OBSCURITY OF EXPRESSION
2. AVOID AMBIGUITY
3. BE BRIEF (AVOID UNNECESSARY PROLIXITY)
4. BE ORDERLY
HALLIDAY (1978)
MODE = channel
FIELD = object of communication
TENOR = relation among participants
THE MAIN LEXICAL FEATURES OF SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE:
1. MONOREFERENTIALITY :
THE MOST WIDLEY-INVESTIGATED DISTINCITV FEATURES OF SPECIALIZED LEXIS, AS COMPARED TO
GENERAL LANGUAGE, IS MONOREFERENTIALITY. THE TERM IS NOT USED TO INDICATE THAT EACH TERM
HAS ONLY ONE REFERENT, AS WORDS GENERALLY HAVE SEVERAL REFERENTS, BUT TO SIGNAL THAT IN A
GIVEN CONTEXT ONLY ONE MEANING IS ALLOWED.
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SPECIALISED LANGUAGE:

IT FOCUSES ON HOW SPECIALISTS USE LANGUAGE WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL

FIELD

THERE ARE THREE ELEMENTS WHO WORK TOGETHER IN ORDER TO HAVE A SPECIFIC LANGUAGE: SPECIFIC

USER, SPECIFIC CONTEXT, SPECIFIC USE.

THERE ARE STYLISTIC CATEGORIES FOR DEGREE OF FORMALITY TO THE DIFFERENT MODES OF TEXT

PRODUCTION LIKE WRITTEN AND ORAL SUBDIVIDED INTO COMPOSED AND SPONTANEOUS.

EXIST THE 4 MAXIMS CALL:

QUANTITY

1. MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION AS INFORMATIVE AS IS REQUIRED (FOR THE CURRENT PURPOSES OF THE

EXCHANGE).

2. DO NOT MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION MORE INFORMATIVE THAN IS REQUIRED.

QUALITY TRY TO MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION ONE THAT IS TRUE

1. DO NOT SAY WHAT YOU BELIEVE TO BE FALSE

2. DO NOT SAY THAT FOR WHICH YOU LACK ADEQUATE EVIDENCE

RELATION BE RELEVANT

MANNER BE PERSPICUOUS

1. AVOID OBSCURITY OF EXPRESSION

2. AVOID AMBIGUITY

3. BE BRIEF (AVOID UNNECESSARY PROLIXITY)

4. BE ORDERLY

HALLIDAY (1978)

MODE = channel FIELD = object of communication TENOR = relation among participants THE MAIN LEXICAL FEATURES OF SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE:

  1. MONOREFERENTIALITY: THE MOST WIDLEY-INVESTIGATED DISTINCITV FEATURES OF SPECIALIZED LEXIS, AS COMPARED TO GENERAL LANGUAGE, IS MONOREFERENTIALITY. THE TERM IS NOT USED TO INDICATE THAT EACH TERM HAS ONLY ONE REFERENT, AS WORDS GENERALLY HAVE SEVERAL REFERENTS, BUT TO SIGNAL THAT IN A GIVEN CONTEXT ONLY ONE MEANING IS ALLOWED.

2. LACK OF EMOTION:

TERMS HAVE A PURELY DENOTATIVE FUNCTION. THE WORD LION, IS GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH SUCH

QUALITIES AS FIERCENESS, AGGRESSIVENESS, PRIDE, MAJESTI BUT FOR ZOOLOGIST, LION MEANS A

SPECIFIC FELINE SPECIES, IN HERALDRY IT IS A CONVENTIONAL SYMBOL USED IN COATS OF ARMOUR, AND

SO ON.

3. PRECISION AND TRANSPARENCY:

THIS REQUIRMENT EXCLUDES THE RECOURSE TO INDIRECT REFERENCE SYSTEMS IN SPECIALIZED

COMMUNICATION, THROUGHT SUCH DEVICES AS EUPHEMISM. THE SURFACE ANALYSIS ALLOWS YOU TO

UNDERSTAND THE MEANING OF A WORD IMMEDIATELY.THIS CAN BE OBTAINED THROUGH THE USE OF

CLASSICAL LEXICON.

4. CONCISENESS:

WHICH MEANS THAT CONCEPTS ARE EXPRESSED IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE FORM. THE NEED FOR

CONISENESS GENERALLY LEADS TO A REDUCTION IN TEXTUAL SURFACE, AS FOR EXAMPLE IN ZERO

DERIVATION, WHICH ALLOWS THE OMISSION OF AFFIXES. REDUCE THE EXTENSION OF THE FORMAL

SURFACE OF THE TEXT, REMOVE PREPOSITIONS BETWEEN NOUNS, USE ABBREVIATIONS AND/OR

ACRONYMS.

5. CONSERVATISM:

IN ORDER TO AVOID AMBIGUITY, THANKS TO THE INTRODUCTION OF NEOLOGISMS, SPECIAL LANGUAGES

MAINTAIN OLD WORDS, EVEN IF THEY ARE OBSOLETE. AN AMOUNT OF CONSERVATISMS IS ALSO FOUND

IN BUSINESS LANGUAGE, WHERE A NUMBER OF AGE-OLD TERMS AND EXPRESSION MAY STILL BE

ENCOUNTRED AND HAVE NOT BEEN REPLACES BECAUSE THEIR MEANING IS CRYSTALLISED AND WIDELY

ACCEPTED ACROSS THE DISCOURSE COMMUNITY. SOME DISCIPLINES ARE CONSERVATIVE TO THE

ABSOLUTE DEGREE, PRODUCING A LANGUAGE WHOSE SUBSERVIENCE TO TRADITION LEADS TO EMPTY

ARCHAIC FORMULAE.

6. INACCURANCY AND AMBIGUITY:

THE SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE ON SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE HAS ENABLED US TO IDENTIFY THE MAIN

CRITERIA WHICH INLUENCE THE CREATION OF SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY.

7. REDUNDANCY:

SOME SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE LANGUAGES CONTAIN INSTANCES OF REDUNDANCY, GENERALLY DUE TO

THE PLENASTIC USE OF LEXICAL ITEMS. THIS INVOLVES A VIOLATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF CONCISENESS,

WHEN THE NUMBER OF LEXEMES EMPLOYED IS FAR HIGHER THAN NECESSARY. REDUNDANCY IS THE

REPETITION OF A CONCEPT THROUGH ITS NEGATED OPPOSITE.

8. SEMANTIC INSTABILITY:

ONE OF THE QUALITIES IDENTIFIES BY GUILBERT AS DISTINCTIVE OF SPECIALIZED TERMINLOGY IS STABILITY

OF MEANING. BUT THIS FEATURE DOES NOT APPLY INDISTINCTLY. SOMETIMES SEMANTIC CHANGE IS

GRADUAL, IN LINE WHIT SLOW CONCEPTUAL TRANFORMATIONS RELATED TO THE EVOLVING VIEW OF A

GIVEN ITEM (PURCHASE). THE PRESENCE OF NEW MEANING WHICH EVENTUALLY REPLACE EXISTING ONES

MAY LEAD TO AMBIGUITY, BECAUSE THE TWO MAY OVERLAP IN ACTUAL USE. THE AMBIGUTY MAY

BECOME GREATR WHEN THE SEMANTIC TRASPARENCY IS APPLIED TO THE ORIGINAL TERM, SINCE THE

TIGHT LINK BETWEEN A TERM AND THE CONCEPT ORIGINALLY ASSIGNED TO IT IS WEAKENED WHEN THE

CONCEPT’S CONSTITUENT FEATURES CHANGE IN RESPONSE TO EVOLVING DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE.

AND HAS TO BE INTEGRATED BY SPECIALIST KNOWLEDGE OF THE TOPIC OF OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS

CONTEXT AND CO-TEXT. THE HYPHEN IS EMPLOYED AS A DISAMBIGUATOR TO AVOID MULTIPLE

INTERPRETATION AND ITS SIGNALS SEMANTIC LINKS BETWEEN WORDS (A SMALL CAR-FACTORY A SMALL

FACTORY FOR MAKING CARS/ A SMALL-CAR FACTORY A FACTOY FOR MAKING SMALL CARS). AT TIMES

AMBIGUITY IS CAUSED BY A POLYSEMUS PREMODIFIER. ADJECTIVATIONS OFTEN TAKES ON COMPLEX

SYNTANTIC VALUES BECAUSE IT ORIGINATES THE EVOLUTION OF NOUN GROUPS (AN L-SHAPED COMPUTER

ROOM A ROOM FOR COMPUTERS WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF AN L). THE FOLLOWING NOUNS PHRASE

CONTAINT A PREMODIFYING PRESENT PARTICIPLE, WHICH IS PREMODIFIED BY AN ADVERB (THE STEADILY

DIMINISHING TRANSVERSE VELOCITY COMPONENT THE TRANSVERSE COMPONENT OF VELOCITY WHICH

DIMINISHES STEADILY). THEREFORE THE USE OF PREMODIFICATION OFFERS ADVANTAGES IN TERMS OF

GREATER TEXTUAL CONCISENESS, THE FORMER IS MORE COMPACT, THE LATTER IS MUCH EASIER TO

DECODE. THE NEW SENTENCE INCLUDING THIS NOUN COMPOUND BECOMES CONCEPTUALLY RICHER AND

SYNTATICALLY SHORTER AND MORE COMPACT. THE COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE TERMS PRODUCES

NOT ONLY A MERE UNION OF EXISTING CONCEPTS, BUT THE PREMODIFICATION PROCESS OFTEN GIVES

RISE TO A NEW CONCEPT THAN ALTERS THEIR NATURE, ADDING NEW MEANING AND USES.

4. NOMINALIZATION:

IT IS THE USE OF VERBAL NOUNS USUALLY ENDING IN SUFFIXES SUCH AS -ATION, -ITION, -ITY, -MENT OR

-NESS. THE USE OF NOMINALIZATION ENABLES COMPLEX INFORMATION TO BE PACKAGED INTO A PHRASE

THAT IS SIMPLE FROM A GRAMMATICAL POINT OF VIEW. NOMINALIZATION LEADS TO A LOSS OF VERBAL

VALUE THAT IS MERELY REDUCE TO A COPULA, A LINK BETWEEN COMPLEX NOMINAL OR ADJECTIVAL

PHRASES. IN TURN, THESE DERIVE FROM SYNTACTIC TRANSFORMATION OF THE VERBS WHIT A STRONG

SEMANTIC CONTENT (DISCHARGE OF THE CONTENT OF THE TANK IS EFFECTED BY A PUMP THE CONTENT

OF THE TANK ARE DISCHARGE BY A PUMP).

5. LEXICAL DENSITY:

IN SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE ONE CONSEQUENCE OF FREQUENT NOMINALIZATION AND OTHER

PREMODIFYNG IS INCREASED LEXIACL DENSITY. LEXIAL DENSITY IS ESPECIALLY HIGH IN WRITTEN TEXT,

WHERE DISCOURSE IS PLANNED MORE CAREFULLY, WITHOUT HESITATION MARKERS AND WHIT LESS

REDUNDANCY.

POST-MODIFICATION: THE COMPLETE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRACTURE MODEL

VS

PRE-MODIFICATION NOMINALIZATION: WHICH REQUIRE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE BOND-RUPTURE

REACTION.

6. SENTENCE COMPLEXITY:

ONE EFFECT OF NOMINALIZATION IS THE SEMPLIFICATION OF SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE WITHIN THE

SENTENCE. SPECIALIST TEND TO SIMPLIFY THE SURFACE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES, WHICH ARE

MINIMIZED INTO SIMPLE PATTERNS OF THE TYPE NOUN PHRASE+ VERB+ NOUN PHRASE. THE VERB PHRASE

OFTEN CONSIST OF COPULATIVE VERB LIKE BE, BECOME, FORM, MEAN, REQUIRE EX.

7. SENTENCE LENGTH:

SENTENCE LENGTH OF LEGAL TEXT IS DUE TO THE HIGH NUMBER OF ITEMS REQUIRED TO MINIMISE

AMBIGUITY AND MISUNDERSTANDINGS. EACH MENTION IS SUPPORTED BY SPECIFICATIONS THAT CLARIFY

ITS IDENTITY. THE SURFACE STRUCTURES OF A SENTENCE IS: NS+ VS+ NS.

VS SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS: TO FOLLOW, TO SUGGEST, TO BE…

STATIVE VERBS: TO MEAN, TO BECOME…

EQUATIVE BE: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBJECT AND NOMINAL PART GIVES AN EQUIVALENCE

X=Y

8. USE OF THE VEBE TENSES:

BARBER FOUND A PREVALENCE OF THE FOLLOWING TEN TENSES IN HIS CORPUS OF ENGLISH SCIENTIFIC

TEXTS:

1.Present Simple Active64% 2.Present Simple Passive25% 3.Future Simple Active3.7% 4.Present Perfect Passive1.7% 5.Present Perfect Active1.4% 6.Past Simple Active1.2% 7.Past Simple Passive 1.2% 8.Future Simple Passive0.7% 9.Present Progressive Active0.6% 10.Imperative0.3% THE PRESENT INDICATIVE TENSE IS CONSIDERED A FEATURE OF SPECIALIZED LANGUAGES. BARBER’S CORPUS ONLY CONTAINS EXPOSITORY SCIENTIFIC TEXTS. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE IS NOT ASSOCIATED TO THE SPECIFICITY OF THE TOPIC BUT RATHER TO THE TEXT’S SPECIAL COMMUNICATIVE POURPOSE, WHICH REQUIRED A GIVEN TENSE EVEM WHITH NON-SPECIALIST SUBJECT MATTER.

  1. USE OF THE PASSIVE: THE PERVASIVENESS OF THE PASSIVE MAY BE ACCOUNTED FOR BY ITS USEFULNESS AS A DEPERSONALISING DEVICE IN SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE, WHICH GENERALLY ENPHASISES THE EFFECT OR OUTCOME OF AN ACTION RATHER THAN ITS CAUSE OR ORIGINATOR. THE PASSIVE IS ALSO IMPORTANT IN TEXTUAL TERMS, AS IT IS NORMALLY EMPLOYED TO THEMATIZE THE PROCESS, FACT OR ACTION MENTIONED IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE, WHICH MAKES THE FLOW OF INFORMATION MORE EFFECTIVE AND NATURAL.
  2. DEPRESONALISATION: DEPERSONALISATION IS A VERY COMMON FEATURES OF SPECIALIZED TEXTS: THE AUTHOR REFERRING TO HIMSELF INDIRECTLY THROUGH THIRD-PERSON PRONOUNS AND SUCH NOUN PHRASES AS THE AUTHOR, THE RESEARCH TEAM AND OTHERS , OR CONVEYING HIS PERSONAL VIEWS TO PERSONALISED FORMS OF THE TYPE THE BOOK INVESTIGATES, THIS ARTICLE DEMONSTRATES ETC. A TREND TO DEPERSONALISATION IS OBSERVED NOT ONLY IN OMISSION OF THE SUBJECT-SPEAKER, BUT ALSO IN THE REDUCTION OF ANY DIRECT REFERENCE TO BE INTERLOCUTOR. MODAL AUXILIARES MUST/ HAVE TO and SHOULD obligation and logical inference/suggestion MAY and MIGHT permission and probability/suggestion CAN and COULDability and possibility WILLprediction

USE OF CONNECTORS

Connective elements in a corpus of scientific texts: Deduction : therefore, thus....33% Contrastive : but, however....23% Certainty or doubt : of course, possibly...16% Semantic continuity : and, moreover....9% Exemplification : for example, in particular…8% COHERENCE Textual coherence is not an intrinsic property of the text but is constructed by the issuer of the text in collaboration with the recipient in the logical connection of the sentences within a given context of interpretation. It works on a semantic level and is achieved thanks to the relationships of chance, purpose, temporal succession, cause-effect relationships and the logical order. Ex: Milk finished! Gone to the supermarket. A B Ex: Jack fell down and broke his head > A causes B Vs Jack fell down and drove his head > A? B INTENTIONALITY : It refers to all the means used by those who produce the text to pursue and realize their intentions  illocutionary force of the issuer. Ex: A > The bell is ringing B> I’m in the bathroom ACCEPTABILITY : It refers to the willingness on the part of the recipient to participate in the communication exchange and to pursue a common goal  perlocutive effect on the recipient. In the example: A > The bell is ringing B> I’m in the bathroom INFORMATION :

It refers to the degree of knowledge / expectation, expectations relating to the contents of the text  text intended as a message: is the information contained in the message known, shared by the issuer and the recipient? Ex: Call us before you dig. You may not be able to afterwards. SITUATIONALITY : It refers to the set of factors that make a text relevant to a given situation: Ex: For he’s a jolly good fellow And so say all of us  exophoric coreferential relationship that satisfies the condition of situationality (party). INTERTEXTUALITY : It refers both to the production and to the reception of a text, processes that use interdependence relationships with other texts already known  the use of formulas. Ex: For he’s a jolly good fellow And so say all of us REGULATORY PRINCIPLES OF TEXTUALITY : They are linked to the maxims of Grice, as their task is to make the textual relations, and therefore the text, EFFICIENT, EFFECTIVE and APPROPRIATE.

  1. EFFICIENCY The communicative event (the TEXT) must require the minimum effort / commitment on the part of the participants in the event itself  the maximum quality / quantity.
    1. EFFECTIVENESS The text must achieve the purpose of the communication  the highest quality / relevance.
    2. APPROPRIATENESS The text must reflect a harmonious composition between content and textual aspects  the highest quality / manner. THEMATIC ORGANIZATION OF A SENTENCE : A TEXT IS BUILT UP ACCORDING TO A PROGRESSIVE SEQUENCE BETWEEN THE THEMATIC AND RHEMATIC PARTS OF DISCOURSE. THEME IS ALWAYS THE LEFT COMPONENT OF A SENTENCE, THE BEGINNING OF AN UTTERANCE. IT IS ALSO THE KNOWN PART OF DISCOURSE. RHEME IS WHATEVER COMES AFTER THE THEME AND IT IS RELATED TO IT BECAUSE IT HAS THE FUNCTION OF EXPLAINING IT. IT IS ALSO THE UNKNOWN PART OF DISCOURSE. THEMATIC PROGRESSION AND ORGANIZATION :