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Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes, Study notes of Biology

University of TorontoBiology

Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes

Typology: Study notes

2020/2021

Uploaded on 01/31/2026

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a.
30. The process of photosynthesis in C4 and Cam plants are important photosynthetic
adaptations, describe this adaptation in Cam plants.
Cell Cycle
31. What are the key roles of cell division?
32. What is a genome? And how do they differ in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
33. What is the definition of chromosome?
34. What do the associated proteins in chromosomes do for it?
35. What is chromatin
36. What are somatics cells? What are gametes? What are the differences between the
two?
37. When cells are not dividing, it is doing what? What form does the chromosome take?
38. What are sister chromatids
39. What are cohesins? How does it relate to sister chromatid cohesion?
40. What is a centromere?
41. What is mitosis?
42. What is cytokinesis
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a.

  1. The process of photosynthesis in C4 and Cam plants are important photosynthetic adaptations, describe this adaptation in Cam plants.

Cell Cycle

  1. What are the key roles of cell division?
  2. What is a genome? And how do they differ in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
  3. What is the definition of chromosome?
  4. What do the associated proteins in chromosomes do for it?
  5. What is chromatin
  6. What are somatics cells? What are gametes? What are the differences between the two?
  7. When cells are not dividing, it is doing what? What form does the chromosome take?
  8. What are sister chromatids
  9. What are cohesins? How does it relate to sister chromatid cohesion?
  10. What is a centromere?
  11. What is mitosis?
  12. What is cytokinesis
  1. What are the 2 phases of the cell cycle?
  2. What are the components of the mitotic phase? And interphase?
  3. The steps of mitosis are, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis. What happens during those phases, also say what happens in G interphase? Use this diagram and use correct vocabulary.

a.

b.

  1. What is the mitotic spindle made of? Where does it get its material from?
  2. Define polymerization in relation to the mitotic spindle?
  3. How does polymerization and depolymerization happen?
  4. Which filament contributes to cleavage furrow? How does this process work?
  5. What instead of a cleavage furrow do plants have? How does that work?
  6. What is binary fission?
  7. What does the cell cycle control system do?
  8. 3 checkpoints where stop and go signals regulate the cycle exist, when in the cycle at they at?
  9. What are the 2 regulatory molecules? What are their roles?

Meiosis

  1. Define these words. a. Heredity b. Variation c. Genetics d. Genes e. Locus f. Life cycle g. Fertilization h. zygote
  2. What is the role of genes?
    1. Compare and contrast sexual vs asexual reproduction.
    1. Name the parts of this chromosome
  5. What is a diploid cell? How chromosomes are a part of a diploid cell? n or 2n? Do the same for a haploid cell. Which cells in humans are haploid?
  6. Meiosis only reproduces 1 type of cell, what is it called?
  7. There are 2 stages of meiosis, meiosis I and meiosis II. In each stage there is interphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis. Using the 3 diagrams below, describe what takes place just before meiosis begins and during both stages of it. Use correct vocabulary.

a.

b.

l. Genotype m. Monohybrids n. Dihybrids o. Complete dominance p. Incomplete dominance q. Codominance (give an example) r. Pleiotropy s. Pedigree analysis t. Consanguineous mating

  1. What were the 2 fundamental principles of heredity that Mendel found?
  2. What is the law of segregation? How does it work?
  3. What 4 concepts make up Mendel's model? Explain them.
  4. What is the law of independent assortment? How does it work? What does it apply to?
  5. What are the 3 levels we can examine phenotype at? Give an example for each one contrasting the other two.
  6. What 2 situations are 2 or more genes involved in determining a particular phenotype? Define the two situations and give as many examples as you can think of.
  7. Describe key aspects of the behavior of recessive alleles disorders a. How are homozygotes affected vs heterozygotes? b. What happens if the disease is lethal? c. How does incest affect recessive alleles
  8. Do the same for dominant alleles disorders
  9. What does simple mendelian disorders refer to?
  10. What does a multifactorial basis refer to?

Chromosomes and its Basis of Inheritance

  1. What does the chromosome theory of inheritance entail?
  2. Why did Thomas Hunt Morgan choose to work with fruit flies?
  3. Why do X and Y chromosomes behave like homologous chromosomes, even though they don’t technically match?
  4. What does the SRY gene do? Which chromosome is it on?
  5. What is a sex linked gene?
  6. How does a recessive sex linked gene affect a male vs a female
  7. What is hemizygous? Who does it relate to? Why does this happen?
  8. Why do men have more x linked disorders than women?
  9. What is meant by x inactivation in females?
  10. How does x inactivation relate to a barr body? First define what a barr body is.
  11. Where does the barr body stay when not in use
  12. When does the barr body remain inactive and when is it active?
  13. Females are a mosaic of the x chromosomes from their parents. How does this relate to x inactivation?
  1. What is genetic recombination?
  2. Genetic recombination is opposite to linked genes, which always produce the same phenotype. What is the mechanism behind genetic recombination?
  3. Define parental phenotypes and non parental phenotypes.
  4. Occurrence of what with a frequency of over 50% indicates linked genes?
  5. What process during cell division allows for genetic recombination?
  6. What is involved in small scale changes to phenotype?
  7. Give examples of large scale chromosomal changes.
  8. What is polyploidy? Triploidy? Tetraploidy? Aneuploidy?
  9. How can triploidy, tetraploidy and aneuploidy result?
  10. What does it mean that polyploidy is more common than aneuploidy?
  11. Nondisjunction is related to abnormal chromosome number. Define the word. What is the result of nondisjunction?
  12. What is the amount of chromosomes in both daughter cells if nondisjunction occurred in meiosis I? Meiosis II?
  13. Define monosomic and trisomic.
  14. Define deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation in chromosomes.
  15. 2 of which are especially likely during which part of meiosis?
  16. 2 of which can alter phenotype? How do they do so?
  17. Which of the 4 is most dangerous? Why?

DNA and its Molecular Basis of Inheritance

  1. Nucleic acids are unique in their ability to do what?
  2. How do bacteriophages relate to how we found out nucleic acids were what DNA was made of?
  3. What are Erwin Chargaff rules?
  4. What do cytosine, thymine and uracil have in common besides being bases? Adenine and Guanine?
  5. What are in all the carbon positions for both sugars?

a.

  1. What does x-ray crystallography do? What was its role in building the structural model of DNA? Who used the technique? Who created the model?
  1. Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a triphosphate (dATP). What reaction is used to join the nucleotides? What 2 things are released during the reaction? What type of reaction is it?
  2. What other job might primase conduct?
  3. What is the trombone model?
  4. What do DNA polymerase do, in relation to errors in DNA?
  5. What is mismatch repair?
  6. How does nucleotide excision repair work? What is involved in running the process?
  7. Mutations are original sources of what? What do they aid in? What are they responsible for?
  8. How does the DNA shape for bacteria help them not age
  9. What are telomeres? Where do they exist?
  10. How do the 3’ to 5’ end rule affect DNA replication?
  11. How do telomeres combat the results of the above?
  12. Are gametes also affected by the above and why?
  13. What is the purpose of this shortening?
  14. In relation to telomerase, what do cancer cells not do?
  15. Define a. Histones b. Euchromatin c. Heterochromatin
  16. What are the levels of DNA packing? Explain what happens in each level.

Gene to protein

  1. Dna leads to specific traits by doing what?
  2. Proteins are the link between what 2 things?
  3. What is the definition of gene expression?
  4. What do genes do in relation to gene expression?
  5. How is RNA different from DNA
  6. How are nucleic acids and proteins similar? How are they different?
  7. What are the 2 stages required to get from DNA to protein?
  8. Define a. Translation b. Transcription c. mRNA d. Promoter e. Transcription unit f. Tata box g. Polyadenylation signal h. RNA polymerase II i. Codons

j. Terminator k. Primary transcript l. tRNA m. Cytoplasm n. Cytosol o. Polyribosomes

  1. Where does transcription occur? Translation?
  2. How does the above differ in bacteria?
  3. How is RNA synthesis different from DNA synthesis
  4. How do the 4 nucleotides specify 20 amino acids? Why wouldn’t it work any other way?
  5. How is the template strand for RNA synthesis chosen?
  6. How do RNA polymerase differ from DNA polymerase? What doesn’t it need?
  7. Follow this diagram, what are the steps of RNA synthesis?

a.

  1. The primary transcript of RNA is modified before it exits the nucleus. The 5’ end receives a 5’ cap and the 3’ end, a poly-A-tail. What are these modifications?
  2. What are the functions of the modifications?
  3. What is RNA splicing?
  4. What are introns (UTR/ intervening sequences?
  5. What are exons?
  6. What is a spliceosome? What do they do?
  7. What is alternative RNA splicing?

c. ● What is differential gene expression?