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Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes, Study notes of Biology

University of TorontoBiology

Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes

Typology: Study notes

2020/2021

Uploaded on 01/31/2026

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c.
75. What goes into crossing over in prophase I?
76. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis. Dna replication? Number of divisions?
Synapsis of homologous chromosomes? Number of daughter cells and genetic
composition? Role in animal body?
77. What are 3 events unique to meiosis? All occur in meiosis I.
78. The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of
the variation that arises in each generation. What are 3 mechanisms that contribute to
this variation? Explain.
Mendel and genes
79. Explain the differences between the blending hypothesis and the particulate hypothesis
of inheritance?
80. Define the following
a. Character
b. Trait
c. True breeding
d. Hybridization
e. P gen
f. F1 gen
g. F2 gen
h. Test cross (how does it work?)
i. Homozygous
j. Heterozygote
k. Phenotype
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8

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c.

  1. What goes into crossing over in prophase I?
  2. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis. Dna replication? Number of divisions? Synapsis of homologous chromosomes? Number of daughter cells and genetic composition? Role in animal body?
  3. What are 3 events unique to meiosis? All occur in meiosis I.
  4. The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation. What are 3 mechanisms that contribute to this variation? Explain.

Mendel and genes

  1. Explain the differences between the blending hypothesis and the particulate hypothesis of inheritance?
  2. Define the following a. Character b. Trait c. True breeding d. Hybridization e. P gen f. F1 gen g. F2 gen h. Test cross (how does it work?) i. Homozygous j. Heterozygote k. Phenotype

l. Genotype m. Monohybrids n. Dihybrids o. Complete dominance p. Incomplete dominance q. Codominance (give an example) r. Pleiotropy s. Pedigree analysis t. Consanguineous mating

  1. What were the 2 fundamental principles of heredity that Mendel found?
  2. What is the law of segregation? How does it work?
  3. What 4 concepts make up Mendel's model? Explain them.
  4. What is the law of independent assortment? How does it work? What does it apply to?
  5. What are the 3 levels we can examine phenotype at? Give an example for each one contrasting the other two.
  6. What 2 situations are 2 or more genes involved in determining a particular phenotype? Define the two situations and give as many examples as you can think of.
  7. Describe key aspects of the behavior of recessive alleles disorders a. How are homozygotes affected vs heterozygotes? b. What happens if the disease is lethal? c. How does incest affect recessive alleles
  8. Do the same for dominant alleles disorders
  9. What does simple mendelian disorders refer to?
  10. What does a multifactorial basis refer to?

Chromosomes and its Basis of Inheritance

  1. What does the chromosome theory of inheritance entail?
  2. Why did Thomas Hunt Morgan choose to work with fruit flies?
  3. Why do X and Y chromosomes behave like homologous chromosomes, even though they don’t technically match?
  4. What does the SRY gene do? Which chromosome is it on?
  5. What is a sex linked gene?
  6. How does a recessive sex linked gene affect a male vs a female
  7. What is hemizygous? Who does it relate to? Why does this happen?
  8. Why do men have more x linked disorders than women?
  9. What is meant by x inactivation in females?
  10. How does x inactivation relate to a barr body? First define what a barr body is.
  11. Where does the barr body stay when not in use
  12. When does the barr body remain inactive and when is it active?
  13. Females are a mosaic of the x chromosomes from their parents. How does this relate to x inactivation?
  1. How long is 1 full turn of the DNA helix? How many base pairs are included in that turn?
  2. How long is the space between DNA bases?
  3. What bonds hold; a. Nucleotides of each strand? What gets bonded? b. The 2 strands together? What gets bonded? c. The molecule together? What gets bonded?
  4. Why must it be a purine pyrimidine that base pairs with one another?
  5. What were the features of Watson and Crick's model?
  6. Explain the semi conservative model.
  7. What are the 2 ways DNA is used?
  8. What is the origin of replication? Can there only be 1? How does it form?
  9. Define the following terms in relation to DNA replication. a. Helicase b. Single strand protein c. Topoisomerase d. Primase e. DNA pol III f. DNA pol I g. DNA ligase h. Leading strand i. Lagging strand j. Okazaki fragments
  10. How does the 5’ to 3’ direction of elongation affect the replication of DNA?
  11. The elongation of the leading strand and lagging strand are quite similar. The only difference between the two, is there is no pausing or jerky transition through to the bottom of the template strand. Follow this diagram, what are the steps of DNA elongation for both the leading strand and lagging strand?

a.

  1. Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a triphosphate (dATP). What reaction is used to join the nucleotides? What 2 things are released during the reaction? What type of reaction is it?
  2. What other job might primase conduct?
  3. What is the trombone model?
  4. What do DNA polymerase do, in relation to errors in DNA?
  5. What is mismatch repair?
  6. How does nucleotide excision repair work? What is involved in running the process?
  7. Mutations are original sources of what? What do they aid in? What are they responsible for?
  8. How does the DNA shape for bacteria help them not age
  9. What are telomeres? Where do they exist?
  10. How do the 3’ to 5’ end rule affect DNA replication?
  11. How do telomeres combat the results of the above?
  12. Are gametes also affected by the above and why?
  13. What is the purpose of this shortening?
  14. In relation to telomerase, what do cancer cells not do?
  15. Define a. Histones b. Euchromatin c. Heterochromatin
  16. What are the levels of DNA packing? Explain what happens in each level.

Gene to protein

  1. Dna leads to specific traits by doing what?
  2. Proteins are the link between what 2 things?
  3. What is the definition of gene expression?
  4. What do genes do in relation to gene expression?
  5. How is RNA different from DNA
  6. How are nucleic acids and proteins similar? How are they different?
  7. What are the 2 stages required to get from DNA to protein?
  8. Define a. Translation b. Transcription c. mRNA d. Promoter e. Transcription unit f. Tata box g. Polyadenylation signal h. RNA polymerase II i. Codons
  1. What are the traits of a tRNA molecule?
  2. The tRNA molecule folds in on itself to keep itself more stable because it is not double stranded. This results in its 5’ end and 3’ end near one another and a loop of a specific sequence of triplet nucleotide (codon) at the other end. What is the role of the 3’ end and the codon at the loop? What is the codon at the loop called?
  3. What are the 2 instances of molecular recognition for accurate translation?
  4. What is “wobble”?
  5. Ribosomes facilitate what in relation to protein synthesis?
  6. Ribosomes are made of a large and small subunit made of protein and a ribosomal RNA (rRNA). However it only forms a functional ribosome when what is attached to it?
  7. Why does medicine that target ribosomes work on bacteria but not eukaryotes?
  8. Ribosomes contain a binding site for mRNA and 3 for tRNA. Name the ones for tRNA. What do they do?
  9. There are 3 stages in translation that each require protein factors. What are the 3 stages?
  10. Walk through the following diagrams. What is taking place? What are the steps?

a.

b.

c. ● What is differential gene expression?