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Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes, Study notes of Biology

University of TorontoBiology

Bio Notes - Bio Notes - Bio Notes

Typology: Study notes

2020/2021

Uploaded on 01/31/2026

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43. What are the 2 phases of the cell cycle?
44. What are the components of the mitotic phase? And interphase?
45. The steps of mitosis are, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
and cytokinesis. What happens during those phases, also say what happens in G2
interphase? Use this diagram and use correct vocabulary.
a.
b.
46. What is the mitotic spindle made of? Where does it get its material from?
47. Define polymerization in relation to the mitotic spindle?
48. How does polymerization and depolymerization happen?
49. Which filament contributes to cleavage furrow? How does this process work?
50. What instead of a cleavage furrow do plants have? How does that work?
51. What is binary fission?
52. What does the cell cycle control system do?
53. 3 checkpoints where stop and go signals regulate the cycle exist, when in the cycle at
they at?
54. What are the 2 regulatory molecules? What are their roles?
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  1. What are the 2 phases of the cell cycle?
  2. What are the components of the mitotic phase? And interphase?
  3. The steps of mitosis are, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis. What happens during those phases, also say what happens in G interphase? Use this diagram and use correct vocabulary.

a.

b.

  1. What is the mitotic spindle made of? Where does it get its material from?
  2. Define polymerization in relation to the mitotic spindle?
  3. How does polymerization and depolymerization happen?
  4. Which filament contributes to cleavage furrow? How does this process work?
  5. What instead of a cleavage furrow do plants have? How does that work?
  6. What is binary fission?
  7. What does the cell cycle control system do?
  8. 3 checkpoints where stop and go signals regulate the cycle exist, when in the cycle at they at?
  9. What are the 2 regulatory molecules? What are their roles?
  1. What does MPF stand for? What is its role? In mitosis? In anaphase?
  2. Walk through this diagram, what is happening?

a.

  1. What does protein kinase do?
  2. What do phosphates do to proteins? Give an example.
  3. What is apoptosis?
  4. What happens to the components of the cell during apoptosis?
  5. What are 3 reasons for apoptosis?
  6. What carries out apoptosis and what do they do?
  7. What triggers apoptosis?
  8. What is the relation between apoptosis and developing body parts such as fingers?
  9. How does mitochondria help apoptosis?
  10. What diseases are related to apoptosis? Explain.
  11. What is special about cancer cells, in relation to cycle controls and apoptosis?

a.

b.

c.

  1. What goes into crossing over in prophase I?
  2. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis. Dna replication? Number of divisions? Synapsis of homologous chromosomes? Number of daughter cells and genetic composition? Role in animal body?
  3. What are 3 events unique to meiosis? All occur in meiosis I.
  4. The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation. What are 3 mechanisms that contribute to this variation? Explain.

Mendel and genes

  1. Explain the differences between the blending hypothesis and the particulate hypothesis of inheritance?
  2. Define the following a. Character b. Trait c. True breeding d. Hybridization e. P gen f. F1 gen g. F2 gen h. Test cross (how does it work?) i. Homozygous j. Heterozygote k. Phenotype
  1. What is genetic recombination?
  2. Genetic recombination is opposite to linked genes, which always produce the same phenotype. What is the mechanism behind genetic recombination?
  3. Define parental phenotypes and non parental phenotypes.
  4. Occurrence of what with a frequency of over 50% indicates linked genes?
  5. What process during cell division allows for genetic recombination?
  6. What is involved in small scale changes to phenotype?
  7. Give examples of large scale chromosomal changes.
  8. What is polyploidy? Triploidy? Tetraploidy? Aneuploidy?
  9. How can triploidy, tetraploidy and aneuploidy result?
  10. What does it mean that polyploidy is more common than aneuploidy?
  11. Nondisjunction is related to abnormal chromosome number. Define the word. What is the result of nondisjunction?
  12. What is the amount of chromosomes in both daughter cells if nondisjunction occurred in meiosis I? Meiosis II?
  13. Define monosomic and trisomic.
  14. Define deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation in chromosomes.
  15. 2 of which are especially likely during which part of meiosis?
  16. 2 of which can alter phenotype? How do they do so?
  17. Which of the 4 is most dangerous? Why?

DNA and its Molecular Basis of Inheritance

  1. Nucleic acids are unique in their ability to do what?
  2. How do bacteriophages relate to how we found out nucleic acids were what DNA was made of?
  3. What are Erwin Chargaff rules?
  4. What do cytosine, thymine and uracil have in common besides being bases? Adenine and Guanine?
  5. What are in all the carbon positions for both sugars?

a.

  1. What does x-ray crystallography do? What was its role in building the structural model of DNA? Who used the technique? Who created the model?
  1. How long is 1 full turn of the DNA helix? How many base pairs are included in that turn?
  2. How long is the space between DNA bases?
  3. What bonds hold; a. Nucleotides of each strand? What gets bonded? b. The 2 strands together? What gets bonded? c. The molecule together? What gets bonded?
  4. Why must it be a purine pyrimidine that base pairs with one another?
  5. What were the features of Watson and Crick's model?
  6. Explain the semi conservative model.
  7. What are the 2 ways DNA is used?
  8. What is the origin of replication? Can there only be 1? How does it form?
  9. Define the following terms in relation to DNA replication. a. Helicase b. Single strand protein c. Topoisomerase d. Primase e. DNA pol III f. DNA pol I g. DNA ligase h. Leading strand i. Lagging strand j. Okazaki fragments
  10. How does the 5’ to 3’ direction of elongation affect the replication of DNA?
  11. The elongation of the leading strand and lagging strand are quite similar. The only difference between the two, is there is no pausing or jerky transition through to the bottom of the template strand. Follow this diagram, what are the steps of DNA elongation for both the leading strand and lagging strand?

a.

j. Terminator k. Primary transcript l. tRNA m. Cytoplasm n. Cytosol o. Polyribosomes

  1. Where does transcription occur? Translation?
  2. How does the above differ in bacteria?
  3. How is RNA synthesis different from DNA synthesis
  4. How do the 4 nucleotides specify 20 amino acids? Why wouldn’t it work any other way?
  5. How is the template strand for RNA synthesis chosen?
  6. How do RNA polymerase differ from DNA polymerase? What doesn’t it need?
  7. Follow this diagram, what are the steps of RNA synthesis?

a.

  1. The primary transcript of RNA is modified before it exits the nucleus. The 5’ end receives a 5’ cap and the 3’ end, a poly-A-tail. What are these modifications?
  2. What are the functions of the modifications?
  3. What is RNA splicing?
  4. What are introns (UTR/ intervening sequences?
  5. What are exons?
  6. What is a spliceosome? What do they do?
  7. What is alternative RNA splicing?
  1. What are the traits of a tRNA molecule?
  2. The tRNA molecule folds in on itself to keep itself more stable because it is not double stranded. This results in its 5’ end and 3’ end near one another and a loop of a specific sequence of triplet nucleotide (codon) at the other end. What is the role of the 3’ end and the codon at the loop? What is the codon at the loop called?
  3. What are the 2 instances of molecular recognition for accurate translation?
  4. What is “wobble”?
  5. Ribosomes facilitate what in relation to protein synthesis?
  6. Ribosomes are made of a large and small subunit made of protein and a ribosomal RNA (rRNA). However it only forms a functional ribosome when what is attached to it?
  7. Why does medicine that target ribosomes work on bacteria but not eukaryotes?
  8. Ribosomes contain a binding site for mRNA and 3 for tRNA. Name the ones for tRNA. What do they do?
  9. There are 3 stages in translation that each require protein factors. What are the 3 stages?
  10. Walk through the following diagrams. What is taking place? What are the steps?

a.

b.