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BIO254 STUDY NOTES REVIEW, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Biology

Virginia State University (VSU)Biology

BIO254 STUDY NOTES REVIEWBIO254 STUDY NOTES REVIEW

Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research

2023/2024

Available from 06/27/2024

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BIO254 STUDY NOTES REVIEW
Muscular skeletal system as physics (page329-331) (synovial joints)
-In producing movement, bones act as levers, and joints function as the fulcrums of these levers. A lever is a rigid
structure that can move around a fixed point called a fulcrum, symbolized by. A lever is acted on at two different
points by two different forces: the effort (E), which causes movement, and the load or resistance, which opposes
movement. The effort is the force exerted by muscular contraction; the load is typically the weight of the body part
that is moved or some resistance that the moving body part is trying to overcome.
-Synovial Joints : pivot (neck)
hinge (fingers & toes)
saddle(thumb, 1st metacarpal and trapezium)
plane(wrist and ankle bones, sternum to clavicle)
condyloid (between radius, scaphoid and wrist bones)
ball-and-socket(hip and shoulder)
Make difference between smooth muscles and cardiac
muscles
Cardiac Muscles
striated (lines) – many nuclei
Smooth Muscles nonstriated – involuntary – visceral muscle
What happens during a depolarization event? Versus polarization event?
-Depolarization is the state which the cell membrane change from positive to negative charged outside the cell
and from negative to positive charge inside the cell.
-Polarization-The cell membrane separates the inside of a cell (all cells, not just neurons) from the outside, and
all chemicals that get into and out of the cell must go through it. As in all cells, the cell membrane of a neuron is
polarized. This means that there is an electrical difference across the cell membrane.
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BIO254 STUDY NOTES REVIEW

Muscular skeletal system as physics (page329-331) (synovial joints) -In producing movement, bones act as levers, and joints function as the fulcrums of these levers. A lever is a rigid structure that can move around a fixed point called a fulcrum, symbolized by. A lever is acted on at two different points by two different forces: the effort (E), which causes movement, and the load or resistance, which opposes movement. The effort is the force exerted by muscular contraction; the load is typically the weight of the body part that is moved or some resistance that the moving body part is trying to overcome. -Synovial Joints : pivot (neck) hinge (fingers & toes) saddle(thumb, 1st metacarpal and trapezium) plane(wrist and ankle bones, sternum to clavicle) condyloid (between radius, scaphoid and wrist bones) ball-and-socket(hip and shoulder) Make difference between smooth muscles and cardiac muscles Cardiac Muscles striated (lines) – many nuclei Smooth Muscles nonstriated – involuntary – visceral muscle What happens during a depolarization event? Versus polarization event?

  • Depolarization is the state which the cell membrane change from positive to negative charged outside the cell and from negative to positive charge inside the cell.
  • Polarization- The cell membrane separates the inside of a cell (all cells, not just neurons ) from the outside, and all chemicals that get into and out of the cell must go through it. As in all cells, the cell membrane of a neuron is polarized. This means that there is an electrical difference across the cell membrane.

What is the function of the posterior region of the spinal cord? -it is responsible for sensory functions. The spinothalamic tract conveys nerve impulses for sensing pain, warmth, coolness, itching, tickling, deep pressure, and crude touch. The posterior column consists of two tracts: the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus. The posterior column tracts convey nerve impulses for discriminative touch, light pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception (the awareness of the positions and movements of muscles, tendons, and joints). Label microscopic skeletal muscle. Describe what happens during muscle contraction. (theory) Step 1-Calcium ions rush into muscle fibers Step 2-Calcium binds to troponin Step 3-Troponin changes shape and exposes actin binding site Step 4-Myosin heads bind to actin binding site making a cross bridge Step 5-Myosin heads do a powerstroke (using ADP and P) which slides actin and decreases length of sarcomere (Z line to Z line) Step 6-ATP causes release of myosin head from actin binding site (cross the myosin head is free to repeat the cycle as long as calcium is in and the ATP available) What is function of acetylcholine?

  • Is a neurotransmitter, which is a chemical released by a nerve cell or neuron -Causes muscles to contract, activates pain responses and regulates endocrine and REM sleep functions. Where do the nerves that supply muscle of thigh and calf of the leg emerge from? -Lumbar 2-4 of spine What are the function of the ascending tracks of the spinal cord?
  • The main role of the ascending tracts of the spinal cord is to transmit somatosensory information.
  • Sensory (ascending) tracts consist of axons that conduct nerve impulses toward the brain.
  • Tracts consisting of axons that carry nerve impulses from the brain are called motor (descending) tracts. What type of synapse with dominant the nervous system? -A neurotransmitter Difference between origin site and insertion site? -Origin Site: The attachment of a muscle’s tendon to the stationary bone The attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone or the end opposite the insertion. -Insertion Site: The attachment of the muscle’s other tendon to the movable bone The attachment of a muscle tendon to a movable bone or the end opposite the origin.

Describe what happens when EPSP occurs? (excitatory postsynaptic potentials)

  • An excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) is a temporary depolarization of postsynaptic membrane caused by the flow of positively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell as a result of opening of ligand-sensitive channels. Describe the relationship between the transverse tubules and sarcolemma?
  • Each transverse tubule lies between 2 enlarged portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called cisternae, near the region where the actin and myosin filaments overlap. both of these activate the muscle contraction mechanism when the fiber is stimulated What is the function of the corticospinal tract? Responsible for? -Is for voluntary motor control of the body and limbs. However, connections to the somatosensory cortex suggest that the pyramidal tracts are also responsible for modulating sensory information from the body. How does an inhibitory neurotransmitter affect the post semantic membrane? (polarize?)
  • The oculomotor (III) nerve (ok′-ū-lō-MŌ-tor; oculo - = eye; - motor = a mover) has its motor nucleus in the anterior part of the midbrain. The oculomotor nerve extends anteriorly and divides into superior and inferior branches, both of which pass through the superior orbital fissure into the orbit ( Figure 14.19a ). Axons in the superior branch innervate the superior rectus (an extrinsic eyeball muscle) and the levator palpebrae superioris (the muscle of the upper eyelid). Axons in the inferior branch supply the medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles—all extrinsic eyeball muscles. These somatic motor neurons control movements of the eyeball and upper eyelid.What are the functions of microglial cells?
  • That these cells mediate immune responses in the central nervous system by acting as macrophages, clearing cellular debris and dead neurons from nervous tissue through the process of phagocytosis What are the functions of microglial cells?
  • That these cells mediate immune responses in the central nervous system by acting as macrophages, clearing cellular debris and dead neurons from nervous tissue through the process of phagocytosis List all divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
  • Somatic Nervous System: The portion of the peripheral nervous system consisting of somatic sensory (afferent) ne urons and somatic motor (efferent) neurons. -Autonomic Nervous System: Visceral sensory (afferent) and visceral motor (efferent) neurons. conduct nerve impulses from the central nervous system to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
  • Enteric Nervous System: The part of the nervous system that is embedded in the submucosa and muscular is of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract; governs motility and secretions of the GI tract. What is the central nervous system made of? -Brain and Spinal Cord Define the term afferent?
  • conducting or conducted inward or toward something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied). What is the function of the oligodendrocyte?
  • are responsible for forming and maintaining the myelin sheath around CNS axons. What is the definition of an agonist muscle?
  • a muscle that opposes the action of another; -Example: "the biceps and triceps” Describe which one contrasts to elevate the ribs and which one contracts to depress the ribs?
  • The external intercostal muscles are responsible for forced and quiet inhalation.
  • The internal intercostal muscles are responsible for forced exhalation

Functions of the neuroglial cells? Ependymal Cells - They facilitate the unidirectional flow of the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), which transports nutrients to the cells of the brain and removes toxic metabolites (by-products of metabolism). Astrocytes - They function to supply nutrients to cells of the nervous tissue, maintain ion balance in extracellular cells, repair and regenerate damaged spinal cord and brain cells and support cells of the blood-brain barrier Microglia - They function to provide immunity to nervous cells, engulf harmful foreign particles, repair damaged neural tissue and are involved in extracellular signaling. Oligodendrocytes - They produce an insulating myelin sheath that surrounds axons and allows them to function efficiently. Oligodendrocytes are divided into types I to I Satellite Cells - They inform the body about impending danger and stress and prepare it for an appropriate fight-or- flight response. Schwann Cells - They play a supporting role in the nervous system by wrapping around nerve tissue and cells to form a protective myelin sheath. are involved in nerve regeneration, repair and development, the conduction of nerve impulses and the provision of antigens to T-lymphocytes (a type of WBC, or white blood cells, that play a role in cell immunity). What two cells will show electric excitability? -Neurons & muscle cells Identify the main parts of a neuron? -Dendrites -Cell Body -Axon -Axon terminal Identify the movements that are facilitate by the arm biceps?

  • In addition to its role in flexing the forearm at the elbow joint, it also supinates the forearm at the radioulnar joints and flexes the arm at the shoulder joint. The brachialis is deep to the biceps brachii muscle. It is the most powerful flexor of the forearm at the elbow joint. For this reason, it is the “workhorse” of the elbow flexors. The brachioradialis flexes the forearm at the elbow joint, especially when a quick movement is required or when a weight is lifted slowly during flexion of the forearm.-

Tableaux Anterior Muscle Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

Biceps Depressor Anguli Oris Label Biceps Femoris

Function: The triceps is an extensor muscle of the elbow joint and an antagonist of the biceps and brachialis muscles. It can also fixate the elbow joint when the forearm and hand are used for fine movements, e.g., when writing. Figure 10.3 (page 298) Myosin Titin Cell body (neuron)

Essay: (pick 1)

  1. Outline the sequence of events of a twitch, starting in the motor neurons and ending in the movement of the muscle?
  2. Identify and describe the major divisions of the nervous system? Central Nervous System: Consist of the brain and spinal cord. Controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement. Peripheral Nervous System: Consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS. Major function is to is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body
  3. Explain the similarities and differences of a simple spinal withdraw reflex and a cross extensor reflex? 4.Describe the major functions of the three types of muscles? Skeletal: Support and Movement. Skeletal muscles move the body. Skeletal muscle contractions pull on tendons, which are attached to bones. If contraction of the muscle causes the muscle to shorten, the bone and, thus, the body part will move. Cardiac: Cardiac muscle tissue is an extremely specialized form of muscle tissue that has evolved to pump blood throughout the body. In fact, cardiac muscle is only found in the heart and makes up the bulk of the heart's mass. Smooth: The smooth muscle in the uterus helps a woman to push out her baby. In the bladder, smooth muscle helps to push out urine. Smooth muscle determines the flow of blood in the arteries. Smooth muscles move food through the digestive tract. 5.Explain the excitatory and inhibitory neuron transmitters work with on the post synaptic membrane and give an example of each?