BIOD 171 MODULE 3 CERTIFICATION EXAMINATION 2026 COMPREHENSIVE STUDY SHEET, Exams of Biology

BIOD 171 MODULE 3 CERTIFICATION EXAMINATION 2026 COMPREHENSIVE STUDY SHEET

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2025/2026

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BIOD 171 MODULE 3 CERTIFICATION
EXAMINATION 2026 COMPREHENSIVE STUDY
SHEET
◉ Incubator temperature for microbial growth. Answer: 1.
Maintaining a temperature of 37°C is optimal for promoting growth
and is the most commonly used
2. Other organisms such as yeast preferentially grow at 30°C
3. Researchers may set incubators at 25°C to restrict pathogenic
growth, because pathogenic strains of bacteria tend to grow faster
than non-pathogenic strains at 37°C
◉ Analyzing unknown causative agent. Answer: The first step is to
expand any potential microbial populations.
The easiest way to do this is to inoculate a simple growth media with
the collected sample or streak it onto an agar plate. The culture (or
plate) is then grown at 37°C to encourage microbial growth.
Once a bacterial population has been expanded, samples can be
taken and re-streaked onto selective and/or differential media for
further analysis
◉ Universal precautions. Answer: All handlers must treat all
samples, known or unknown, as potentially hazardous (or
pathogenic) materials.
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BIOD 171 MODULE 3 CERTIFICATION

EXAMINATION 2026 COMPREHENSIVE STUDY

SHEET

◉ Incubator temperature for microbial growth. Answer: 1. Maintaining a temperature of 37°C is optimal for promoting growth and is the most commonly used

  1. Other organisms such as yeast preferentially grow at 30°C
  2. Researchers may set incubators at 25°C to restrict pathogenic growth, because pathogenic strains of bacteria tend to grow faster than non-pathogenic strains at 37°C ◉ Analyzing unknown causative agent. Answer: The first step is to expand any potential microbial populations. The easiest way to do this is to inoculate a simple growth media with the collected sample or streak it onto an agar plate. The culture (or plate) is then grown at 37°C to encourage microbial growth. Once a bacterial population has been expanded, samples can be taken and re-streaked onto selective and/or differential media for further analysis ◉ Universal precautions. Answer: All handlers must treat all samples, known or unknown, as potentially hazardous (or pathogenic) materials.

Thus, the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) should always be used. ◉ Analyzing a microbial sample. Answer: 1. Observe: morphological characteristics (size and shape); motility

  1. Test: Gram-positive or Gram-negative; chemical reactions; changes in color ◉ 5 Steps to Infection. Answer: 1. Entry: portals, mucus, and parental
  2. Attachment: adhensin factors
  3. Invasion: deeper for nutrients
  4. Evasion: hide from or undermine the immune response
  5. Exit and transmission: directly or indirectly transmit to a new host ◉ Modes of transmission. Answer: 1. Direct: person to person, animal, environment, vertical
  6. Indirect: airborne, vehicle, biological vector, mechanical vector ◉ Streptococcus. Answer: 1. A Gram-positive, round bacterium that tends to link to other bacteria in chain-like structures.
  7. Catalase negative (cannot breakdown peroxides)
  8. Often cultured on blood agar plates (BAP).
  1. Additional complications within the ear, lung, or sinus cavities.
  2. Left untreated: progress to rheumatic fever. ◉ Rheumatic fever. Answer: 1. Occurs in 3% of untreated cases of Streptococcal pharyngitis (in 2-3w).
  3. An inflammation of the joints, involuntary jerking movements, the development of pea-sized nodules beneath the skin, and reddened areas with raised edges over the surface of the skin
  4. Serious development: damage to heart valves
  5. Treatment: penicillin ◉ Streptococcal septicemia (blood poisoning). Answer: 1. Group B infection of the blood + secondarily infect other surrounding tissues
  6. Other causes: species of E. coli, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella
  7. Serious, life-threatening infection (worsens quickly for its systemic nature): arise from infections in the lungs, abdomen, or urinary tract and may precede or accompany meningitis or endocarditis; rapidly progress to shock (with fever or hypothermia) and a decrease in blood pressure
  8. Symptoms: fever, chills, rapid breathing, and an increased heart rate
  9. Treatment: antibiotics, IV fluids, and oxygen.

◉ Staphylococcus. Answer: 1. Gram-positive, round bacterium that tends to form grapelike clusters with other bacteria

  1. Catalase and coagulase-positive, facultative anaerobe, commensal bacterium
  2. Differential screen: growth in the presence of bile salts 4.Remains non-symptomatic in about 30% of the human population ◉ Facultative anaerobe. Answer: It is capable of growth both aerobically and anaerobically ◉ Commensal bacterium. Answer: It neither harms nor benefits the host from which it obtains nutrients ◉ Folliculitis (Staph aureus). Answer: 1. Affects the hair follicles, causing the formation of lesions called pustules
  3. Larger pus-filled skin lesions (boils and carbuncles) can also develop anywhere on the surface of the skin ◉ Scalded skin syndrome (Staph aureus). Answer: 1. Mostly in young children and infants
  4. Causes pustules to rupture yielding a scalded appearance due to the peeling of the skin
  5. Treatment: penicillin or erythromycin antibiotics
  1. Prevention: an antibiotic ointment containing neomycin applied to newborns eyes ◉ Tuberculosis/TB. Answer: 1. Mycobacterium tuberculosis - small, aerobic, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria, best visualized via an acid- fast stain
  2. Spread through the air via mucosal emissions, (cough, sneeze, spit, etc.), and must be inhaled to be infectious
  3. Symptoms: a bad cough for about 3w, pain located in the chest, and coughing up blood or heavy sputum (mucus); weakness, fatigue, weight loss, and fever/chills
  4. Two ways to test: a skin test, where a small fluid sample of tuberculin—a purified protein extract of tubercle bacillus—is placed under the skin of your arm (for raised red bump); a direct blood test
  5. Treatment (6-9m): a combination of the drugs isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), and pyrazinamide (PZA) ◉ Leprosy/Hansen's disease. Answer: 1. Mycobacterium lepraea - a small rod-shaped, acid-fast bacterium
  6. Can remain asymptomatic for 3-20 years
  7. Spread via airborne fluid droplets from the nose and/or mouth
  8. Affects the skin, nerves, upper respiratory tract, and eyes
  9. Left untreated: severe nerve damage commonly results in further physical injuries due to the lack of sensation and feedback signals
  1. Completely curable: multiple-drug therapy regimen consisting of various combinations of the drugs dapsone, rifampin, and clofazimine (free from WHO) ◉ Botulism. Answer: 1. Clostridium botulinum, a Gram-positive, anaerobic, spore-forming, bacillus bacterium
  2. When exposed to anaerobic conditions C. botulinum releases a paralytic toxin that affects motor neurons
  3. Toxin production conditions: foodborne botulism (improperly canned or contaminated, low-acidic foods), infant botulism (<6m; honey), wound botulism (drug injection)
  4. Botox: harness the paralytic effects of the botulin toxin to prevent wrinkles or prevent cranial muscle spasms in patients with severe migraine headaches ◉ Tetanus/lockjaw. Answer: 1. Clostridium tetani, a Gram-positive, anaerobic, spore-forming, bacillus bacterium often found in soil, dust, and animal feces
  5. The tetanospasmin toxin produced by C. tetani (under anaerobic conditions) causes illness
  6. Toxin acts on inhibitory neurons causing systemic muscle stiffness and spasms, most often seen initially in the masseter muscle of the jaw, aka lockjaw
  7. Left untreated: respiratory failure
  1. Symptoms: developing pneumonia as well as fever, headaches, muscle aches, coughs, and shortness of breath (in 2-10d)
  2. Treatment: antibiotics ◉ Plague. Answer: 1. Yersinia pestis, a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, rod-shaped bacterium capable of infecting both humans and animals
  3. Three forms: bubonic (painfully swollen lymph nodes), pneumonic (affects the respiratory system, highly virulent), and septicemic (targets the blood system and spreads to major organs )
  4. Symptoms: headache, fever, seizures, bleeding, difficulty breathing, low blood pressure, and organ failure (in 2-5d)
  5. Treatment: antibiotics, such as streptomycin, tetracycline, fluoroquinolones, gentamicin, and doxycycline ◉ Anthrax. Answer: 1. Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped, spore-forming bacterium commonly found in the soil where it most often exists in the endospore form
  6. Three forms: cutaneous (a large painless boil with a black center), pulmonary (fever, headache, cough, shortness of breath), and gastrointestinal (severe diarrhea, vomiting, acute inflammation of the GI tract)
  7. Bioweapon: resiliency of the spores even to chlorine bleach; can be redistributed on the cloth

◉ Lyme disease. Answer: 1. Borrelia burgdorferi, a motile (multi- flagellated), anaerobic spirochete (negative stain required) bacterium

  1. Transmission: a tick bite containing B. burgdorferi in its saliva
  2. Symptoms: a trademark bulls-eye rash; fever/chills, headache, muscle and joint pain, and fatigue
  3. Left untreated: long-term arthritic and neurological complications ◉ Gonorrhea. Answer: 1. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a Gram-negative, diplococcic, and fastidious bacterium best grown on chocolate agar
  4. Utilizes pili, small protein filament appendages, for attachment and movement.
  5. Symptoms: inflammatory responses in the urethra, throat, prostate, anus, and testes
  6. Left untreated: cardiac and neurological complications such as endocarditis and meningitis. ◉ Syphilis. Answer: 1. Treponema pallidum, a Gram-negative spirochete (thin), best identified via dark-field microscopy.
  7. Initial symptoms: imitate a wide range of other diseases such as fever, headache, sores, and rash
  8. Complications in 4 stages: primary (3-6w, sores), secondary (rough red/brown rashes, fever, headaches, swollen lymph nodes, muscle aches, fatigue), latent (asymptomatic for >30y) and late (10-

million nucleotides (like pandoravirus, which houses the largest known viral genome) ◉ Enveloped & naked viruses. Answer: 1. Envelope surrounds the capsid and is derived from the host cell membrane (additional barrier to the external environment)

  1. Naked or non-enveloped virus: simply surrounded by the protein capsid
  2. The majority of animal viruses are enveloped whereas the majority of plant or bacteria-infecting viruses are not ◉ Differences in virion composition. Answer: 1. Smallpox virus (variola virus): enveloped, about 200 nm long, and has a distinct dumbbell-shaped viral capsid.
  3. Poliovirus: is non-enveloped and only about 30 nm in diameter
  4. Paramyxoviruses (measles, mumps): contain a single-stranded linear genome and fuse with the host cell membrane to initiate entry and viral replication
  5. Orthomyxoviruses (flu): contain 8 segments of RNA and enter the host cell via endocytosis
  6. Paramyxoviruses and orthomyxoviruses are both enveloped, spherical, and about 100-150 nm in diameter ◉ Viral life cycle/viral replication. Answer: 1. Attachment - entry - uncoating - replication - assembly - release
  1. The virus must first attach to the host cell (1) and quickly penetrate and enter the cell (2). The capsid disintegrates (uncoating), as it enters the cytoplasmic space (3). The viral genome then undergoes transcription/translation to produce new viral proteins (4) as well as duplicates its entire genome (5). New viruses are then assembled (6) and released (7) ◉ Bacteriophages/phage. Answer: 1. The type of virus that infects bacteria
  2. Structure: an icosahedral (20-sided polygon) capsid head group (viral genome) + a helical tail attached with tail fibers (fibrous extensions or legs that aid in binding host cells)
  3. Once the tail fibers have mediated binding, the helical tail penetrates the host cell wall and the viral genome is effectively injected through the hollow helical tail and into the cytoplasm ◉ Two forms of replication for bacteriophages. Answer: 1. Lytic: replicate within the host bacteria until it lyses, or ruptures, effectively destroying the host bacterial cell. (The culture media turns from turbid to clear)
  4. Lysogenic/temperate: exist in a non-replicative state such that its viral genome is integrated into the host genome (becoming a prophage). As the host cell replicates its DNA, it also replicates the viral DNA, but the production of viral proteins via transcription and translation is suppressed (no lysis).
  1. Symptoms: red (koplik) spots with white centers (from forehead to upper extremities, trunk, and lower extremities)
  2. Vaccine: MMR ◉ Mumps/epidemic parotitis. Answer: 1. A linear, single-stranded, enveloped RNA virus about 15,000 nucleotides long, Paramyxovirus family
  3. Transmission: air-borne droplets (sneezing/coughs) or direct contact
  4. Contagious: 7d prior and 8d after the initial symptoms
  5. Symptoms: initially like a cold - headache, fever, and muscle ache; characterized by painful swelling of the salivary (parotid) glands located in the neck, which may also occur in the testes/ovaries and the pancreas
  6. Vaccine: MMR ◉ Chickenpox/varicella virus or zoster virus. Answer: 1. A linear, double-stranded, enveloped, DNA virus about 125,000 nucleotides long; Herpesviruses family - VZV (varicella-zoster virus).
  7. Transmission: air-borne droplets (sneezing/ coughs) or direct contact with the blisters
  8. Contagious: 1-2d before the rash appears (non-contagious upon the formation of scabs over the blisters)
  1. Symptoms: small, itchy, fluid-filled blisters that can form anywhere on the body; the zoster virus permanently remains in the body in a dormant state and causes shingles around 60y of age
  2. Vaccine: inactivated VZ virus in the chickenpox vaccine (VZV vaccine) ◉ Shingles/herpes zoster. Answer: 1. Reactivation of the varicella- zoster virus (VZV)
  3. Contagious: once the red patches form into small blisters (the susceptible will develop chickenpox)
  4. Symptoms: severe pain, tingling, or burning localized where the rash will later present - painful blisters
  5. Treatment: OTC pain medications; anti-viral drug acyclovir ◉ Smallpox/variola virus. Answer: 1. A linear, double-stranded, enveloped DNA virus about 186,000 nucleotides long.
  6. Two variants: variola major (more severe & common) and variola minor
  7. Transmission: air & contact
  8. Symptoms: initial high fever followed by a rash in the mouth or throat to the face, arms & legs and eventually hands & feet; the rash became raised bumps filled with a thick, opaque fluid that would eventually form scabs (left marks on the skin resembling pitted scars once off)
  1. The 2nd leading virus responsible for the common cold in people (1st rhinoviruses)
  2. Three major outbreaks: 1) SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) occurred in China in 2003, 2) MERS (Middle East Respiratory Virus) started on the Arabian Peninsula in 2012, 3) SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19 pandemic) began in late 2019 in Wuhan, China. The enveloped, single stranded RNA viruses are in the Coronavirdae family.
  3. Transmission: respiratory droplets
  4. Alleviation: quarantine measures, travel restrictions, and mask wearing ◉ COVID-19 symptoms & complications. Answer: 1. Symptoms: asymptomatic infection to high fever, chills, headache malaise and body aches; sore throat, loss of smell and taste, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
  5. Complications: inflammation of the heart tissue, abnormal lung function, acute kidney injury, rash and hair loss, and depression; acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), respiratory failure, or cytokine storm ◉ Cytokine storm. Answer: An abnormal amount of inflammatory chemicals are released from the immune system damaging the body's tissues and organs

◉ COVID-19 vaccinations. Answer: 1. 2021, the FDA granted emergency use authorization

  1. Use recombinant technology to deliver components of the viral genome to people's cells with the goal that the cells will produce non-pathogenic viral antigens to create an immune response and immunity
  2. mRNA vaccine: delivers mRNA encoding for part of the SARS-CoV- 2 viral spike protein for body cells to produce the viral antigen, alerting the immune system
  3. Recombinant vector vaccine: double stranded DNA of the SARS- CoV-2 spike protein is delivered in a live viral vector, which will not assemble and release new virions ◉ Human immunodeficiency virus/HIV. Answer: 1. A linear, single- stranded, enveloped RNA (2 copies) virus about 10,000 nucleotides long; Retroviridae family
  4. Structure: a conical capsid comprised of about 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24; within the envelope are 2 key glycoproteins gp (binds to host protein receptor CD4) and gp41 (binds to host chemokine receptors CXCR4 or CCR5)
  5. Treatments: a regiment of anti-retroviral medicines to combat the virus's ability to reproduce
  6. Left untreated: progress to AIDS
  7. Approx. 37 million individuals are currently living with HIV.