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Developing Expertise in Sport, Lecture notes of Kinesiology

York UniversityKinesiology

KINESIOLOGY FULL LENGTHY LECTURE NOTES ON DEVELOPING EXPERTISE IN SPORT. TEST PREPARATION.

Typology: Lecture notes

2023/2024

Uploaded on 12/10/2025

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Developing
Expertise in Sport
How is an expert athlete distinguished?
Cognitively (brain adapts to performance and competition
context), psychologically, physiologically, biologically.
How are these skills developed? TrainingExpertise
More time practicing something the better you get at that thing. Training is
important and is universal of human learning. Experts train more.
-Training is most predictive of expertise
Require more training as expertise grows - since training from day 1
isn’t gna satisfy growth at day 100 - need harder and better training
General Models of skill learning
1. Power law of practice - curve that shows improvements
over time get smaller and smaller but never plateau! It reflects
power function. Increases rapidly improvements at first then
improvements of performance get plateau then gradually drops
over time.
-> also, imp in cognitive task like decision making, motor function.
•Positive relationship b/w practice and performance
•Performance increases rapidly at first but then becomes more
difficult to improve.
2. 10-year rule - Simon and Chase (1973)
•Becoming expertise takes 10 years of training for brain to make
these adaptations.
•Ex. chess players
o Grandmaster level of expertise was the result of almost full-time
dedication to practice and engage for a period of over 10 years.
3. Theory of deliberate practice (Andres Ericsson)
•Level of expertise attained is a direct result of the number of
hours spent in deliberate practice
-> he states that not all practices are created equal. Go for walk with
headphones on for 30 minutes and repeat after warmup. That is
deliberative practice he says. Deliberate practice is highly
purposeful and relevant to improving in the area of weakness.
•Activities that are: effortful, purposeful, and not inherently
enjoyable instead it is to improve.
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Developing

Expertise in Sport

How is an expert athlete distinguished?  Cognitively ( brain adapts to performance and competition context ) , psychologically , physiologically, biologically. How are these skills developed? TrainingExpertise More time practicing something the better you get at that thing. Training is important and is universal of human learning. Experts train more. -Training is most predictive of expertise Require more training as expertise grows - since training from day 1 isn’t gna satisfy growth at day 100 - need harder and better training General Models of skill learning

1. Power law of practice - curve that shows improvements over time get smaller and smaller but never plateau! It reflects power function. Increases rapidly improvements at first then improvements of performance get plateau then gradually drops over time. -> also, imp in cognitive task like decision making, motor function. - Positive relationship b/w practice and performance - Performance increases rapidly at first but then becomes more difficult to improve. 2. 10-year rule - Simon and Chase (1973) - Becoming expertise takes 10 years of training for brain to make these adaptations. - Ex. chess players o Grandmaster level of expertise was the result of almost full-time dedication to practice and engage for a period of over 10 years. 3. Theory of deliberate practice (Andres Ericsson) - Level of expertise attained is a direct result of the number of hours spent in deliberate practice -> he states that not all practices are created equal. Go for walk with headphones on for 30 minutes and repeat after warmup. That is deliberative practice he says. Deliberate practice is highly purposeful and relevant to improving in the area of weakness. - Activities that are: effortful , purposeful, and not inherently enjoyable instead it is to improve.

  • efficient type of training vs. regular practice - not all practices are equal. Deliberate practice must coincide with biological and cognitive development
  • early specialization (the earlies you start, the more likely it is that you are going to achieve these expertise and excellent outcomes.) =one reason Ericsson model is criticized for that it appears to support the idea that we need to specialize early.  individuals performing deliberate play interact within 3 constraints factors: o resources - access to learning resources ex: better instructors, coaches, peer, finical resources. o effort - any effort full training stimulus needed to be balanced with recovery body stimulus to let your brain adapt. Not just putting hour and hours of effort for training. o motivation - because we are talking about very long period of time, and we need to understand our motivation for that process to happen. study 1: Decision-Making ( Australian institution sport )
  • expert vs. non-expert (basketball, floor hockey, netball)  Experts did more hours of training than non-experts. It is not a threshold and is more like a continuum. - total hours of training to become experts for national teams as a group: 4000 hrs. - central tendency: 600-6000 hours - large range : people varied in hours of training - thus, maybe it isn’t quantity but quality of the training study 2: Endurance ( Physiological Task )
  • expert. Vs. intermediate vs. low
  • Iron triathletes
  • Training history - endurance sports - only sport you could quantify number of hours of training (quantifiable training intensity) - total hours of training to become experts for national teams as a group: 4000 hrs. vs. musicians: 10,000hrs - Variability range is 8000-20000 hours.

 Biological influences: Fast/slow twitch muscle fiber %  VO2max is trainable Ex. many things now have genetic influence: height, working memory for chess players nothing that we measure has complete absence of genetic influence

  • these things interact (psychological and genetic components - thus we need to look at them together instead of separate) These all things are interacting and are not separate, independent predictors of expertise. That somebody’s psychology affects their interest in doing 1000 or 10 years of training. So, that a person’s psychology might be predicted by genetic factors. Moe Norman ( Famous for golf )
  • Rated by many as the best ball striker in golf history, very odd looking but accurate swing
  • Extremely shy and nervous during competition.
  • Never succeeded at the professional level due to his personality (lacked psychological skills)
  • He didn’t have the personality characteristics necessary to be an elite performer. Didn’t acceptance speech or interact with people. Had limits of personality not skills. Gene & Training Interactions COL5A1 Gene - Chromosome 9
  • Produces Collagen Type 5, Alpha 1 protein
  • This comes with 2 benefits- first is that you have a tendons and ligaments that are very elastic and springy. And the other marker means that your tendons are slightly more stiff or less flexible. -> if we have that stiff and less flexible marker than (negative marker):
  • Affects likelihood of tendon injury. (Elastic factors - beneficial marker, vs. tight - negative marker).
  • Likely affects the amount and type of training a person can do. o Can’t just look at the number of hours of training for achievement when there are all these biological factors to consider as well. These three factors (training, genetics, psychological) - we grouped them in something called primary influences. The of the thing that is critical is to recognize is that a person’s ability to utilize and appreciate these primary influences is built on social structure and support system.

Secondary influence? Explaining Sporting Expertise 1- Contextual variables: -> between sports - all sports are not the same and need different amount of training such as psychological skills or role of genetics. All these things will vary across sports. -> within a sport - the context is not stable within a sport. Its shifts depend on how the performance variables are going to change over time. It’s not enough to understand what kind of performance one won in Tokyo, for example, and must predict how that performance is going to change between Tokyo to Paris. (Bcoz the same level of performance that might won in Tokyo is not going to be enough to win in Paris.) *Note: both of these categories of variables are dynamic

  • Sports evolve into different contexts -Genes, psychological factors, and training are manipulative factors that you bring to the table - primary influences -Secondary influences: constrains on primary influences Birthplace effect. In certain sport peak performance occurs earlier in development than in other sports. Such as gymnastics, divining (early). Mid to late adolescence in gymnastic. Once we get to early 20s, it becomes harder for gymnasts to stay at the top of podium. Need to spend majority of time in gymnastic training. We see benefits in aerobic conditioning.
  • Ex. Boston marathon running time o Ed. Whitlock - first man over age 70 that broke 3 hr. record in 1897  But these days the time is near 2:10hrs… great improvement in society
  • Ex. Olympic Sports
  • CBS sports - (S - stands for centimeters, grams, or seconds.) o Not a linear easy prediction of sport improvement over time, hard to generalize future predictions (can’t know how many hours of training in a sport is needed in order to be successful expert in x number of years down the line because unpredictable) no consistency in sport improvement over time (not linear, variable, context is important) Socio-cultural variables ( social influences on behavior )
  • Social values, availability (training resources), parental influence, cultural nation represented sport type Ex. don’t want to grow up in Australia if want to play ice hockey. (Because you won’t get same socio-culture support as in Canada) Ex. Relative age effect (RAE) RAE has been found in a range of sports – ice and field hockey, cricket, baseball, handball… …Reverse effects in gymnastics: smaller athletes (end of year born) are actually seen as more talented Possible explanations
  1. ‘Older’ athletes experience more success - psychological benefits of always appearing and seeing themselves more superior than those that are born in the later year. They are strong, perform better.
  2. ‘Older’ athletes more likely to be seen as gifted. Relative age effect in NHL Draftees: Grouping of individuals Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sept, Oct-Dec
  • decline of number of people in age groups as the year goes on (largest age group in Jan-Mar, while smallest in Oct-Dec). ex: even if one day is left for them to turn 9, they will still be left in younger group.
  • leaves a 1-year discrepancy b/w oldest and youngest individuals in age group (dec. 31 vs. Jan 1)
  • important for evaluation for who’s more likely to be identified as talented (most likely the kids at the beginning of the year, while the later year’d individuals are seen as disadvantaged)
  • this effect has not been decreased amongst the past decades, remains consistent if age effect didn’t matter then there would be linear consistency b/w different month ranges over the yr. ex. Birthplace Effect. -If you come from small rural town or large urban area, you are actually less likely to become an elite athlete. You are under producing based on distribution of the general population. -The best place was to come from somewhere in the middle of the medium, small to medium size sub-urban area seemed to overproduce elite performance. The sweet spot be b/w 50K to 500K (50000-500000). However, if we got more than that then we see decreasing production of elite athletes.
  • Examined: the size of the town where athletes were born
  • disadvantage: coming from a small town vs. a major urban center
  • medium sized towns overproduce athletes (Barrie, Newmarket) - Toronto under produces athletes as its >500K population size
  • advantage: cities b/w 50-500 thousand people - overproduce athletes - why? Not sure but ex:

o Resource management - urban cities have resources but

lack availability of use because so much competition, whereas suburban have little resources but can freely practice.

o Perceived safety - idea that suburban cities are safer than

bigger cities

o Structured vs. unstructured training. High urban places could

be more structured because there is more competition and training (depth of competition).

o Depth of competition (big fish little pond effect)

o Ethnic diversity - more non-traditional sports

o Interestingly, there is some evidence (Baker et al., 2009) that the effect is less stable in European countries. What can we say about developing expertise?

 General Psychological Skills - persistence, goal setting, mental toughness - regardless of sport specialized - can transfer b/w sports -  Intrinsic Motivation - currency of skill acquisition, has to come from appropriate design of early learning activates - emphasize fun, lack of structure, remove score board but this actually shines spotlight on competition. - promote athletes to start to like sport, the challenge, the mental toughness etc. o Specific -- lots of training, also high performance. (Increase mitochondria density in muscles only in muscles that is involved in task)