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LESSON 1 DOING PHILOSOPHY
Part 1 – The Nature and Functions of Philosophy Part 2 – Philosophical Tools and Processes Part 3 – Philosophical Reflection More than 2500 years ago a sage in South Asia named Gautama Buddha declared that “Life is suffering.” This is the first of his Four Noble Truths. And indeed, if you look at your life you will see that it is a series of challenges that you have to overcome if you want to survive. It feels like you are competing in a race in which you are required to successfully jump hurdles in order to win. And each challenge in life is really a question or a bunch of questions that you have to answer. If you are not feeling well for example you might ask, Why am I feeling this way (cause)? How can I overcome it (process)? How it will affect my life and the people around me (consequence)? Philosophy, our subject matter for this course, is really all about questions and answers. And since by now you already asked and answered hundreds of questions your life experienced already prepared you to take our philosophical journey starting now. Picture Analysis Direction: Look at the picture below and answer the following questions. Source: https://www.patheos.com/blogs/driventoabstraction/2018/07/blind-men-elephant-folklore- knowledge/ retrieved May 2020
- What do you notice from the picture?
- Did anyone get the correct answer? Why or why not?
- What does this picture imply about our effort to understand the realities of life or answer our perennial problems? I. THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY Etymologically philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). You might find it strange to connect love to philosophy. You might think of philosophy as a purely intellectual discipline which has nothing to do with love. You might believe love is romance, poetry, intense passion in which you are willing to lay down your life. But you will see that philosophy can also be pursued passionately. In fact, some people like Socrates died for truth. It is this centrality of love to philosophy that we call people who engages in philosophy as philosophers (lovers of wisdom). Philosophy - body of knowledge methodically acquired and ordered which undertakes to give the fundamental explanation of all things. ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in the West. To be more precise it is the ancient Greek city of Miletus in the Western coast of what is now Turkey that gave birth to philosophy. It is in this city that the first philosopher in the West, Thales, lived. Thales is the Father of Philosophy in the Western civilization. He lived between 624 and 546 BCE a contemporary of the Lydian king Croesus and the statesman Solon (Stumpf and Fieser, 2008). What made Thales a philosopher is his desire to know the ultimate stuff that makes up the different things we perceived. You see when we look at the world we encounter different things: people, trees, clouds, mountains, rivers, etc. Now Thales believed that despite the different things we encounter there is one underlying stuff or substance in which everything is composed. He believes that there is One in the Many. Thales was the first individual who tried to reduce the multiplicity into a unity (Jones,1969). But his explanation of natural phenomena is devoid of gods and goddesses of the old religion of Greece. It is completely rational. It represents a departure from the mythological religion of Greece. Thales approach highlights the difference between religion and philosophy. Religion rests on faith while philosophy rests on reason. Ancient Greek philosophers.
- Pythagoras (570 BČE to 495 BCE) -A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with formulating the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he established a community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy. THALE S
sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology, ethics, and politics. He also proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals. His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to deductive reasoning - the process by which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization. Why is there a need to philosophize? Philosophers have often wondered and argued about the role of philosophy in man's life. One view is that each one of us is a philosopher, whether or not we have studied philosophy. We all have the potential to philosophize since we have the tendency to wonder and doubt. We possess the capacity to reflect on our experiences, never-ending need to learn and discover. The Greek philosopher Plato traced man's need to philosophize to his sense of wonder. Whenever we are confronted with an experience, we always wonder how it came about. Man's over bounding curiosity drives him to ask questions, some of which have no definite answers. Where did we come from? Why do we exist? For what purpose were we created? Consider a small child's curiosity about all the things around him, most of which he encounters for the first time. This perspective drives the need of a philosopher have a to question, examine, and learn more. The 15th-century French philosopher Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to doubt. Descartes was famous for rejecting or questioning established ideas, and he even went as far as doubting his own ideas. His method of examining ideas and perspectives became the basis of critical thinking and analysis in the sciences. For example, a scientific hypothesis must first be tested and verified before it is accepted as truth. In life, we will be faced with several ideas and arguments which present themselves as "truths." A critical and questioning perspective is necessary to determine if indeed these ideas or views are correct or true. The 20th-century Swiss-German philosopher Karl Jaspers saw the need to philosophize because of experience. Jaspers believed that man is often confronted by experiences which challenge his ideas and frameworks. Jaspers called these experiences limit situations, and these are often accompanied by feelings of helplessness, anxiety, or dread. For Jaspers, philosophy provides us a means to understand adverse or challenging conditions, and to rise above them and gain new knowledge and perspectives Finally, the need to philosophize is driven by the love for wisdom. To love wisdom is to have an insatiable desire for truth. A philosopher does not seek knowledge to claim ownership of it; and one who engages in philosophy is not satisfied with figuring out the answer to a question. He seeks to continue to question, to probe, and to discuss in order to get to the bottom of things. The philosopher who exemplified this perspective was Socrates. He gained fame for his curiosity and his constant debates with many of the intellectual elite in Greece. Socrates is famous for having said "I know that I do not know..." and it is in accepting this state of ignorance that one can begin to learn and understand. By expanding our knowledge through philosophy, we begin to realize that learning is unceasing - there is a lot more to learn and experience in life. Socrates is
also recognized for his motto: "The unexamined life is not worth living." And nowhere is it more appropriate to embark on philosophy than in an examination of our own life. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Since philosophy’s concern is vast, we have to divide it into different branches. Each branch will focus on a specific area of philosophy. To understand the branches of philosophy let us return to the three central philosophical questions we explored earlier. First the question, Where am I? By the time we reached adulthood we believe we know the answer to this question. In fact we believed that the answer is obvious that we don’t bother to look closely at the question itself. Where am I? Well let’s say I’m in Manila. You don’t need philosophy to answer that one. But if you ask a series of where questions (Where is Manila? Where is the Philippines? etc.) which at first seems childish you eventually end up with the universe. And here we have to stop asking the where question (Where is the universe is an absurd question. The universe does not exist in a place). What kind of place is the universe? Is it governed by laws? If so what laws? The study of the universe as a whole is the province of metaphysics. Metaphysics is further subdivided into ontology which studies existence as such and philosophical anthropology which deals with the fundamental and essential characteristics of human nature (Gotthelf and Salmieri, 2015). The second question, How do I know it? concerns the nature of human knowledge and the way to obtain it. How do we obtain knowledge? Do we obtain knowledge by revelation, intuition, instinct or reason? Can we achieve certainty or are we doomed to suffer perpetual doubt? Is knowledge based on the things we perceive or from something else? This is the concern of epistemology which can be defined as the “branch of philosophy that studies the nature and means of human knowledge.” We need epistemology to guide us in knowing since we make mistakes from time to time. The first two branches of philosophy, metaphysics and epistemology , are called cognitive branches. These branches provide a description of being (existence) and knowing. They are the foundations of understanding any philosophical system. The next three branches of philosophy ( ethics, politics and aesthetics ) can be classified as the normative branches of philosophy because they are concerned with the standard of the good. If the cognitive branches are concerned with what “is” the normative branches are concerned with what “ought” to be. The most basic normative branch of philosophy is ethics or morality (this two concepts may be used interchangeably). It is concerned with the last of the three questions central to philosophy: What should I do? Ethics can be regarded as the technology of philosophy because it tells us how human beings ought to function as a human being. But in order to describe how human beings ought to act we must first know what a human being is. These last is provided by metaphysics and epistemology. This is especially true of philosophical anthropology a sub-branch of metaphysics which studies the metaphysical nature of man. Metaphysics and epistemology are the foundations of ethics. What then is ethics or morality? According to Ayn Rand ethics or morality is a branch of philosophy that provides a human being with a “code of values to guide man’s choices and actions - the choices and actions that determine the course of his life
- Philosophical Questions. Philosophy was born because of ignorance. If one is ignorant, he asks questions and if he keeps on questioning the more knowledge he acquires. Once a person stops questioning, he cease to become a philosopher. In our daily struggles, one needs to ask questions simple, serious and deep questions that we have to grapple with. A philosopher is like a child who has an inquisitive mind who never stops asking questions and finding answers. Socrates went further not just asking questions for himself but poses questions to people which is the beginning of series of questions and responses from participants. This philosophical questioning can be best described from an excerpt from Plato’s apology of Socrates below: “…But let us examine each one of the parts of this charge. Now he asserts that I do injustice by corrupting the young. But I, men of Athens, assert that Meletus does injustice, in that he jest in a serious matter, easily bringing human beings into trial, pretending to be serious and concerned about things for which he never cared at all. That this is so, I will try to display to you as well. Now come here, Meletus, tell; do you not regard it as most important how the youth will be the best possible?” (Plato’s apology of Socrates, 24C) His method is called dialectics. The Socratic Method , also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. Aristotle said that it was the pre- Socratic philosopher Zeno of Elea who invented dialectic, of which the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method. According to Kant, however, the ancient Greeks used the word "dialectic" to signify the logic of false appearance or semblance. Dialectics is a term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. As a dialectical method, it is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments. Eighteenth century philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel expounded dialectics which later influenced Karl Marx, the father of communism.
- Logical Reasoning. In philosophy reasoning is the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. It has been the method institutionalized by the triumvirate Greek philosophers specially Aristotle. Philosophy is about answering questions. Reasoning is the method we use in doing philosophy. However, although it is necessary for any competent engagement with philosophy, it is not the end all and be all of philosophy. All branches of philosophy employ reasoning in explaining their arguments. For example the concept of right or
SOCRATES
wrong which is the domain of Ethics based their arguments in human reason alone in contrast with theology which is dependent from the Bible as the source of its moral teachings. Reasoning however is the domain of one branch of philosophy which is Epistemology. One type of logical reasoning is the deductive reasoning: Example: Premise 1: All human beings are mortal Premise 2: But the President of the Philippines is a human being Conclusion: Therefore, the President of the Philippines is mortal. Here we are taught to arrive at a certain truth or knowledge in a logical process. In contrast, Inductive reasoning begins with a particular to universal argument. Example: Premise: Student A, B, C, D, E, F….. are wearing School ID. Conclusion: Therefore, All students are wearing ID The above examples show the logical process wherein by reasoning one arrives at a certain truth or knowledge. Logic starts with the origin of ideas, terms, propositions or premises, syllogism, etc. These terms are the basic structure of argument. III. Philosophical Reflection When we venture into philosophizing, we see the greater perspective of all things and see the ultimate purpose or reasons for our existence. Most of us are so engross with individual trees and we miss the whole forest as the saying goes. We are always predisposed to attend to the details of the problem rather than look at the situation as a whole. This is true in our understanding of the objects, events, realities and situations around us. Reflection is the process that would aide in understanding the holistic point of view of what is going on around us. Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in systems. This is often described as looking at the "big picture" when describing and analyzing a situation or problem. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability to get the general sense or impression regarding a situation. Partial thinking , on the other hand, focuses on specific aspects of a situation. The partial view is an important component of analytical thinking, as an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to understand it. Though partial thinking is useful, philosophy utilizes holistic thinking in making sense of problems and issues related to the human experience. Reflection is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and actions and learn from experience. (Abella, 2016). Philosophers always search for the essence of things and the ultimate reasons for our existence. Its trajectory is to see the bigger picture about everything. This process is called philosophical reflection. According to Gabriel Marcel , philosophical reflection is the
a) day-to-day life, b) reflection, and c) application
- In reference to question #3, do the following: a. Define what each term refers to. b. Share a belief narrative where they encountered the three moments in their own life. c. Give insights as to the importance of reflection and application in one’s day- to-day life. ASSESSMENT Direction: Choose the letter that corresponds to your answer from the statements below. Write your answers on the sheet of paper. Direction: Choose the letter that corresponds to your answer from the statements below. Write your answers on other sheet of paper. _1.It is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and actions and learn from experience. A. reflection C. wondering B. questioning D. reasoning __ 2. What is the science and art of correct thinking? A. Ethics C. Metaphysics B. Aesthetics D. Logic _3. The type of philosophical reflection which trains the mind to think logically. It is also the ability of the mind to construct and evaluate arguments A. Secondary reflection C. Primary reflection B. Tertiary reflection D. all of the above _4. One of the triumvirate Greek philosophers who pioneered a method of argument called dialectic. A. Plato C. Pythagoras B Socrates D. Aristotle _5. This is the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. A. reasoning C. intuition B. proposition D. reflection _6. It is a term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. A. deductive C. Inductive B. dialectic D. reflective _7. It is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. A. holism C. existentialism B. idealism D. rationalism __ 8. According to Gabriel Marcel this type of reflection enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality.
A. Secondary reflection C. Primary reflection B. Tertiary reflection D. all of the above _9. The western philosophical tradition originated in _. A. Greece C. India B. China D. Egypt __ _10. What is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature and means of human knowledge? A. Metaphysics C. Politics B. Ethics D. Epistemology 1.It is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and actions and learn from experience. A. reflection C. wondering B. questioning D. reasoning _2.What is the science and art of correct thinking? A. Ethics C. Metaphysics B. Aesthetics D. Logic __ 3. The type of philosophical reflection which trains the mind to think logically. Also it is the ability of the mind to construct and evaluate arguments A. Secondary reflection C. Primary reflection B. Tertiary reflection D. all of the above __ 4. One of the triumvirate Greek philosophers who pioneered a method of argument called dialectic. A. Plato C. Pythagoras B. Socrates D. Aristotle __ 5. It is considered as the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. A. reasoning C. argument B. Proposition D. Reflection
- In our daily lives we encounter events, situations or issues that we need to ponder and think deeply. This activity which requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and actions and learn from experience is related to the concept of: A. philosophical reflection C. philosophical wondering B. philosophical questioning D. philosophical reasoning
- Imagine that you are in Boracay walking with Thales. He is convincing you that the only reality is water. Would you believe in him? A. No, because I had my own belief. B. Yes, because Thales belongs to the school of monists which believes that only one kind of stuff exists. C. Either yes or no, I will have my own investigation that is based on the data and reason presented. D. Neither yes nor no until it is proven true. __ 8. According to Gabriel Marcel this type of reflection enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality. A. Secondary reflection C. Primary reflection B. Tertiary reflection D. all of the above
