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Ling 115---------------------------Ling 115, Exams of Advanced Education

Abilene Christian University (ACU)Advanced Education

Ling 115-------------------Ling 115

Typology: Exams

2025/2026

Available from 02/16/2026

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Ling 115
Varieties - correct answer ✔✔Ways that people speak; neutral term
Slang - correct answer ✔✔Agreement about the rules.
Can be improper slang/there is a wrong way to use slang
-know rules that haven't been taught
Advantage of Mutual Intelligibility - correct answer ✔✔Don't need exact same
grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary
i.e. British and American English
Mutual intelligibility problems - correct answer ✔✔1. Same language, not mutually
intelligible
i.e. Chinese= Cantonese, mandarin, Taiwanese or Geordie from New Castle
2. Different languages, mutually intelligible
ie languages spoken at the border are understood
3. Dialect Continuums
-where do you draw the lines between languages?
What is a language? - correct answer ✔✔Socio-political
-what people actually use
Examples of slang rules - correct answer ✔✔-like insertion
-expletive insertion
Dialect Continuums - correct answer ✔✔Languages don't change at the border they
change little by little - similar to the color spectrum, cannot define where one thing
ends and another beings
ie Western Romance Dialect Continuum, Turkic Dialect Continuum
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Ling 115

Varieties - correct answer ✔✔Ways that people speak; neutral term Slang - correct answer ✔✔Agreement about the rules. Can be improper slang/there is a wrong way to use slang -know rules that haven't been taught Advantage of Mutual Intelligibility - correct answer ✔✔Don't need exact same grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary i.e. British and American English Mutual intelligibility problems - correct answer ✔✔1. Same language, not mutually intelligible i.e. Chinese= Cantonese, mandarin, Taiwanese or Geordie from New Castle

  1. Different languages, mutually intelligible ie languages spoken at the border are understood
  2. Dialect Continuums -where do you draw the lines between languages? What is a language? - correct answer ✔✔Socio-political -what people actually use Examples of slang rules - correct answer ✔✔-like insertion -expletive insertion Dialect Continuums - correct answer ✔✔Languages don't change at the border they change little by little - similar to the color spectrum, cannot define where one thing ends and another beings ie Western Romance Dialect Continuum, Turkic Dialect Continuum

Language - correct answer ✔✔Powerful variety; socio-political Lexico-statistics - correct answer ✔✔100-200 words: cognates?

  • 80-100% = same language
  • 21-81% = same family, different languages
  • <28% = different families, different languages Lexico-statistics definition - correct answer ✔✔formal linguists use it to determine whether a variety is a language -in this method, linguists compare vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation of the varieties to estimate the percentage of similarities among them -factors that influence speakers to identify themselves as speakers of a certain language are: socio-economic class, ethnicity, and religion -Would NOT work to define varieties geographically Lingua Franca - correct answer ✔✔What speakers use to communicate with one another -the common language spoken between two speakers of different languages Social Dialect Continuum - correct answer ✔✔Jamaican Creole Dialect Continuum = social class continuum Register - correct answer ✔✔Ways of speaking depending on formality -more specific to the situation~the use of certain terms ie sports (overlap with style) Language - correct answer ✔✔A standard variety used by the people in a country Slang - correct answer ✔✔Informal variety, often not found in dictionaries, but used in daily life

Accent - correct answer ✔✔ONLY pronunciation change dialect - correct answer ✔✔can include different vocabulary and grammar changes How does language become the standard? - correct answer ✔✔1. Importance

  1. Historicity
  2. Autonomy
  3. Not a Reduction / Mixture Importance - correct answer ✔✔language of government, language of trade, language of upper class Historicity - correct answer ✔✔used for a long time, literary tradition Autonomy - correct answer ✔✔sets the speakers apart from others Not a Reduction / Mixture - correct answer ✔✔can't be seen as derived from another language Ways speech differs - correct answer ✔✔geographic region, race, gender, age, social class (occupation, income, education) The Deficit Hypothesis - correct answer ✔✔nonstandard speech is caused by bad language input -insufficient (1st language emphasized), sloppy, not thought through Is nonstandard bad? - correct answer ✔✔NO True - correct answer ✔✔T/F: All varieties are linguistically equal The Detroit Study - Shuy (1968) - correct answer ✔✔linguistic variables:

-syntactic: multiple negation -phonological: deletion of nasal found that: Variation is systematic - not free or sloppy Nonstandard = different, equivalent not bad - correct answer ✔✔1. "bad" features can be good in other varieties

  1. features are only bad when prominent
  2. need to know the culture to know what's bad
  3. nonstandard home variety has value Labov 1972 - correct answer ✔✔(R is the linguistic variable) Three different department stores (high, middle, and low class) Two Questions: casual: the fourth floor - formal: the fourth floor Found: Variation by social class (higher class = more standard) Variation by style (more formal = more standard) Motivation: OVERT PRESTIGE Language and Geographic Region - correct answer ✔✔-different places = different ways of speaking -Upper Middle Class = least constrained by geography (Lower and Upper class = very constrained by geography) Labov 1966 - correct answer ✔✔Five tasks: reading a word list, interview, reading a paragraph, chit-chatting, reading a list of minimal word pairs (ie break - bake, creep
  • keep) Found: Crossover effect and hypercorrection Crossover Effect - correct answer ✔✔a lower class uses standard features too much (more than the higher class would) -indicates the feature is prestigious

Isogloss - correct answer ✔✔line drawn between two linguistic features-determines the geographic boundary between linguistic features ie. Benrath-Uerdinger line in Germany Bundle of Issoglosses - correct answer ✔✔different dialects by formal linguistics Markedness - correct answer ✔✔hard to pronounce, syntactically complicated ie consonant clusters Unmarked - correct answer ✔✔easy to pronounce, syntactiacally simple Classic Works on dialectical variation: - correct answer ✔✔-NYC households convo and reading minimal pair list (Labov 1966) -Detroit Dialect (Shuy 1968) -Reading England-Nonstandard /s/ (Cheshire 1972) Lexical Diffusion - correct answer ✔✔language changes one word at a time

  1. High frequency --> low frequency
  2. More marked --> less marked -Not everyone adopts the change -results in varieties -S-CURVE (starts slow, goes really fast for a while, slows down again) monomorphemic - correct answer ✔✔no internal structure (the past time we met) bimorphemic - correct answer ✔✔verb + ed (the passed time between us) -high frequency action verbs change first

Why do people change their language? - correct answer ✔✔Prestige

  1. Language changes all the time-does NOT degenerate
  2. The whole language doesn't change at once-Lexical Diffusion
  3. Not everyone adopts the change Old & New forms co-exist - correct answer ✔✔-not all vocabulary affected at the same time -not all speakers affected at the same time Pressures from Above - correct answer ✔✔-conscious change -change to overtly prestigious feature ie. /r/ in NYC (Labov 1972) Pressures from Below - correct answer ✔✔-unconscious change -change to covertly prestigious features ie. Martha's Vineyard Language change - correct answer ✔✔1. High frequency --> low frequency
  4. Change tries to make language easier
  5. Rate of diffusion = s-curve
  6. Happens in response to pressure -pressure from above -pressure from below AAVE - correct answer ✔✔-African American Vernacular English -Black English (Black Caribbean English) -Ebonics Why AAVE? - correct answer ✔✔-Big population -Established

AAVE is at least a dialect - correct answer ✔✔AAVE is at least a dialect Is Ebonics a Different Language? - correct answer ✔✔-nonprestigious (main reason why its not considered its own language) -black -urban -lower class -hip hop and rap AAVE - correct answer ✔✔-rule governed ~double negatives ~delete 2nd consonant from a cluster ~more varied aspect system -Continued use: Pressure from Below ~covert prestige