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Nuclear TechnologyNuclear TechnologyNuclear Technology
Change in mass → E = Δmc^2
The mass of a particular atom is always slightly less than the sum of the masses of the individual neutrons, protons, and electrons of which the atom consists. The difference between the mass of the atom and the sum of the masses of its parts is called the mass defect (Δm). The energy produced in a nuclear reaction can be calculated by using the equation, E = delta mc² which was first derived by Albert Einstein in 1905.
Chemical Reaction: Every chemical reaction is a transaction of electrons between atoms. ○ Chemical reactions can be endothermic and exothermic. Example: Acid (HCl) + Base (NaOH) → Salt (NaCl) + Water (H2O) ○ Conservation of Mass: Conservation of Mass states that during a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products must be equal to the total mass of the reactants. Nuclear Reaction: In nuclear reactions, it is the nucleus of the atom that gains stability by undergoing a change of some kind. ○ Example: 1 Atom + 1 Atom^ →^ Neutron + Energy
Nuclear Technology
Delta M ( Δ m):
Fig: Pitchblende
India signed a long term contract with Uzbekistan in 2019 for supply of 1100 MTU of natural uranium ore concentrates during the years 2022 to 2026. India has entered into similar agreements with overseas suppliers from various countries like Canada, Kazakhstan and France for the supply of Uranium Ore.
Enrichment: The vast majority of nuclear power reactors use the isotope uranium-235 as fuel, however, it only makes up 0.7% of the natural uranium mined and must therefore be increased through a process called enrichment. ■ (^) Use of: Here, nuclear centrifugal separators are used. ○ (^) Low Enriched Uranium (LEU): The process of enrichment used to increase the uranium- concentration from 0.7% to between 3% and 5% which is then used in most nuclear power plants.
A small number of reactors, most notably the CANDU reactors from Canada, are fuelled with natural uranium, which does not have to be enriched.
○ (^) High Enriched Uranium (HEU): The process of enrichment used to increase the uranium- concentration to more than 20% which is to be used in atomic weapons. Need For Enrichment: There is a requirement of higher concentration of U-235 to sustain a chain reaction and produce energy efficiently.
Note:
India’s Uranium Purchase Agreement
Plutonium
It isaman-made radioactive nuclear fuel i.e. it does not occur naturally. Transmutation of Uranium: Plutonium (Pu-239) is formed in nuclear power reactors from uranium- 238 by neutron capture. ○ Pu-239 is a fissile material Applications: 94 𝑃𝑢 is weapon grade nuclear fuel i.e. it can be used ○ ○
It can also be used in nuclear power reactors. It is used in the second stage of a Fast Breeder Reactor.
23 8 inside nuclear weapons.
Thorium
It is naturally occurring as monazite (ore). No enrichment is required as the ore contains 2% to 12% of thorium ( 23290 𝑇𝑢 )
Monazite Reserves
One of the reasons why the princely state of Travancore became important for India was because reserves of monazite were discovered. C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, Diwan of Travancore, put forward the demand of independent Travancore. He had the support of Muhammad Ali Jinnah and a secret agreement with London for the export of monazite. After an assassination attack by a member of the Kerala Socialist
India: India has 25% of the Thorium reserve but only 2% of the Uranium Advantages: Thorium is three times more abundant than uranium on Earth. ○ ○
The radiation level of thorium is not dangerous. Nuclear waste out of thorium-based reactors will remain dangerous only for 500 years against uranium waste which takes 10,000 years to decay. ○ Atomic^ weapons^ cannot^ be^ developed^ by^ thorium^ (non-weaponized).
reserve of the world.
stance and agreed to accede to India in July 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru, Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, Homi J. Bhabha along with other scientists negotiated and convinced the Travancore state to hand over access to its monazite reserves.
Party, Aiyar changed his
Fissile Material: Elements that can go under fission reactions directly when bombarded with neutrons are called fissile material. ○ Examples:^ 𝑈,^ 𝑈,^ 𝑃𝑢
Fissile Material and Fertile Material
● (^23592 92233 ) ■ These are directly fissionable. ●^ Fertile Material: Those elements which can provide fissile material are called fertile material.
Chain Reaction: During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released when a uranium atom splits. These neutrons continue to collide with other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This process is called a nuclear chain reaction. ○ Usage: ■ It could be an uncontrolled chain reaction^ →used in atomic bombs Controlled chain reaction where we limit the production of the number of neutrons via neutron absorption → used in nuclear power plants
Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Technology Development in India
Phase - I Developing Peaceful Nuclear Power (1947 - 74)
“It is science alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and tradition, of vast resources running to waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving people.””- Jawaharlal Nehru Post-Independence India’s Requirements: After independence, India pursued nuclear technology to meet its growing energy needs, support potential nuclear threats. At the same time, India strongly advocated for global nuclear disarmament.
economic development, and build a deterrent against
○ Paradox in India’s Nuclear Policy: This creates a paradox in its nuclear policy—promoting peace while developing nuclear capabilities for security. 1945: The United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Beginning of Cold War 1947: India celebrated its independence. 1948: The Atomic Energy Commission was set up to lay the foundation for atomic energy development in India. It was chaired by Homi J. Bhabha. 1954: Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up in 1954 to take charge of development work in the field of atomic energy with Bhabha as its first secretary. The Atomic Energy Commission is responsible for formulating the policy of the Department of Atomic Energy. India’s Early Nuclear Policy: Emphasized the peaceful use of nuclear energy for development and energy needs. ○ ○
Strongly supported universal nuclear disarmament. Advocated for a nuclear weapon-free world to: ■ ■ ■
Reduce the risk of nuclear conflicts Protect South Asia from external influence Enhance India’s national security ○ Recognized that nuclear weapons could serve as a deterrent against potential threats. 1955 Onwards: India started establishing nuclear cooperation with countries like Canada, USA and France 1956: First Light Water Reactor, APSARA. “APSARA” was the first research reactor in Asia, and became operational in the Trombay campus of BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). The reactor was shut down in 2009. 1957: India became a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). ○ IAEA: The IAEA is the world's centre for cooperation in the nuclear field. It was set up as the world's "Atoms for Peace" organisation in 1957 within the United Nations family. It reports to UNSC and UNGA. It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria. 1960: India developed the Heavy Water Reactor, CIRUS. ○ It was constructed under Canadian assistance. India and Canada shared the cost of about $14. million. CIRUS, the workhorse of BARC.
On 4 October 1964, nearly two weeks before the first Chinese nuclear weapon test, Homi Bhabha declared that India could make an atom bomb within 18 months of a decision to do so. His advocacy, among other political pressures, led Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri to essentially sanction work towards what was called a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE). During his speech at the Lok Sabha on November 27, 1964, Shastri credited Homi Bhabha with convincing him about developing “nuclear devices” to build “big tunnels” and “wipe out mountains for development parks.”
1965: Indo-Pakistani war
1962: Sino-Indian War took place. 1962: Atomic Energy Act (AEA) came into existence. Section 3(a) of the AEA, 1962 empowers only the central government “to produce, develop, use and dispose of atomic energy”.
1963: India became one of the signatories of the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT). It banned nuclear testing in space and inside deep water. 1964: India was more alarmed when China became a nuclear power. The test was conducted at the Lop Nur test site on 16 October 1964. With this P5 nations, United States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), China became nuclear powers
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1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed. ○ The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1967 and the remaining states i.e. non-nuclear weapon states were not allowed to test nuclear weapons. India fundamentally opposed joining NPT because it saw it as a discriminatory regime that took away India’s right to explore its nuclear options. India believed that signing of the NPT would forever establish an unfair nuclear norm of nuclear “haves” and “have-nots”.
By 1965, five major powers acquired nuclear weapons: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
USA - 1945 USSR - 1949 UK - 1952 France - 1960 China - 1964 India still demanded for Universal Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1965 1st July 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was open for signing. NPT aimed to split the world into two groups: Nuclear Weapon States (NWS): Those that tested nuclear weapons before 1967 could keep their nuclear weapons. Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS): Those that could not test nuclear weapons until 1967 and could neither acquire nor develop nuclear weapons.
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However, against India’s will, in 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) was implemented, which India did not sign as it discriminated between NWS and NNWS, while approving the nuclear weapons of P5 nations. End of Cold War and India’s Condition: With the decline of the USSR, India lost political and nuclear support. India still faced nuclear sanctions from the rest of the world as India was out of NSG. The world was dominated by the USA. The USA-EU-Japan and USA-China front was building against India. China was advancing technologically and even Pakistan had developed nuclear infrastructure. Pokhran II - India's Second Nuclear Test ● Against this backdrop, on 11 May (3 tests) and 13 May (2 tests) 1998, under PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The test was code named Operation Shakti and others. Pakistan also carried out its nuclear tests at Chaghai Hills in Baluchistan on 28 May 1998 and 30 May 1998.
India tested 5 nuclear devices
India has been trying, since 2008, to join the group, which would give it a place at the high table where the rules of nuclear commerce are decided — and, eventually, the ability to sell equipment. Many countries that initially opposed its entry, like Australia, have changed stance; Mexico and Switzerland are the latest to voice support. India’s effort has been to chip away at the resistance, leaving only one holdout — China. 1978: Non-Proliferation Act, following which the US ceased exporting nuclear assistance to India. The actions taken by the US and several others imposed heavy restrictions on India, making the latter an outcast within the global non-proliferation order for decades to come.
US President Jimmy Carter signed the Nuclear
1993: The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is a multilateral treaty that bans chemical weapons and requires their destruction within a specified period of time. The convention opened for signature on January 13, 1993, and entered into force on April 29, 1997. India is a signatory of CWC.
1974: India has used US and Canadian reactors to produce fissile material. After the test, both nations stopped nuclear assistance to India. ○ Also, after the Pokhran test, the US pushed for setting up a club of nuclear equipment and fissile material suppliers. The 48-nation Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) would go on to implement agreed rules for exporting nuclear equipment, with a view to controlling the spread of nuclear weapons and where members would be admitted only by consensus.
Note:
1991: Disintegration of USSR and India lost its trusted ally.
1996: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions, whether for military or peaceful purposes. ○ India is not signatory. 1998: India conducted five nuclear tests of advanced weapon designs in 1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan. The first three detonations took place simultaneously on 11 May. The two nuclear devices detonated simultaneously on 13 May. It was code-named Operation Shakti. 1998: On 28 May 1998, Pakistan conducted its own nuclear tests in the Chagai hills of Balochistan. These tests effectively established Pakistan, just like India, as a de facto nuclear weapons state.
“If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass or leaves – even go hungry – but we will get one of our own.” - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, former Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1965
● 1999: A draft nuclear doctrine was prepared by the National Security Advisory Board chaired by the late K. Subrahmanyam and was handed over to the government on 17 August 1999. ■ ■ ■
Credible minimum deterrence No-first use policy Authorised by civilian political leadership No use of nuclear weapons to NNWS (non-nuclear Nuclear weapons are intended for retaliation only (if any nation use biological or chemical weapons) Strict control on Nuclear Export Strong support towards nuclear weapon free world
2003: After a meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Security, the government issued a statement on January 4, 2003, spelling out India’s nuclear doctrine and the operationalization of its nuclear deterrent. ○ The Cabinet Committee on Security was formed by the Nuclear Command Authority (NCA). It consists of
Phase - III: India as Emerging Nuclear Power (1998 -
■ weapon states)
■ (^) Executive Council: Headed by the National Security Advisor (NSA). It provides advice to the political council. Political Council: Headed by the Prime Minister. The final power lies on the political council. ■ Security Forces Command would act on the decision taken by the council. This^ command^ would be
accepted by aCommander-in-Chief (have to be equal to Air Marshall).
●^ 2005: In July 2005, USA-India Civil Nuclear Cooperation was announced. ○ India agrees to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), access to its civilian nuclear program. By March 2006, India promised to place fourteen of its twenty-two power reactors under IAEA safeguards permanently. ○^ The agreement implicitly recognizes India's "de facto" status even without signing the NPT.
The range of the BrahMos was originally limited to 290 kms as per obligations of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) of which Russia was a signatory. Following India’s entry into the club in June 2016, plans were announced to extend the range initially to 450 kms and subsequently to 600 kms. BrahMos with extended range up to 450 kms have been tested several times since.
The four agreements that are mentioned below are multilateral export control regimes (MECR) and India is a signatory of three out of four. ○ They are all independent of United Nations 2016: India became a signatory of Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) becoming the 35th member of MTCR ○ Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR): MTCR came into the play to prevent the proliferation of missile technology, missile and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and its technology capable of carrying greater than 500 kg payload for more than 300 km as well as systems intended for WMDs (Weapons of Mass Destruction). ■ Thus MTCR members are prohibited from supplying such systems to non-MTCR members. ■ It was established in 1987 by G7 countries. ○ Note: Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile^ are only multilateral transparency and confidence building instruments concerning the spread of ballistic missiles.
Proliferation (^) (HCoC) and (^) MTCR
Advantages of Being a Signatory of MTCR:
Phase - IV: Established Nuclear Power (2009 Onwards)
The essence of the deal was simple: the United States would give up trying to roll back India’s nuclear weapons programme and change its domestic law and tweak international rules to facilitate civil nuclear cooperation with Delhi. India, on its part, would separate its civilian and military nuclear programmes, put the former under international safeguards, and support the global non-proliferation regime.
● 2008: The NSG passed a waiver of restrictions on nuclear commerce with India in September 2008. ○ In October 2008, the US also ended the sanctions on nuclear trade dated from the 1974 nuclear test.
2007: 123 Agreement was signed.
Note:
Capabilities:
It is capable of being launched from land, sea, sub-sea and air against surface and sea-bed targets and has constantly been improved and upgraded. The missile has been long inducted by the Indian armed forces and the Army recently deployed BrahMos along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Arunachal Pradesh.
What is BrahMos:
BrahMos is a jointventure between India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. The missilederives itsname from the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
2017: India became a signatory of Wassenaar Arrangement becoming the 42nd member of the group. Wassenaar Arrangement: It was established in order to promote transparency and greater responsibility in transfer of conventional arms and dual use goods and technologies. Thus preventing destabilising accumulations. ■ It also aims to prevent acquisition of these items by terrorists. ■^ It was established in 1996. 2018: India became a signatory of Australia Group becoming the 43rd member of the group. ○ Australia Group: It is an informal group that seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to development of chemical and biological weapons.
■ It maintains export control on a uniform list of 54 compounds that can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. It was established in 1985. In order to join Australia Group members need to fulfil their obligation under Chemical Weapon Convention and Biological Weapon Convention.
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): The fourth major export control regime (NSG). NSG seeks to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons by controlling the export of nuclear, nuclear-related materials, equipment and technology.
is Nuclear Suppliers Group
○ India is not a member of the NSG, as India’s bid is constantly blocked by China due to India's refusal to sign the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Types of Nuclear Reactor in India
Thermal Reactors: It requires a moderator. It can be further classified into; Moderator is H O: In one category boiling water is used and the reactor is called boiling water reactor (BWR) and the other is called pressurised water reactor (PWR).
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Russia: Indian PWRs technology is taken from Russia and it is named as water-cooled water- moderated power reactor (VVER, acronym is based on its Russian name). India: 2 each PWR and BWR are present in India. ○ Moderator is D^ O: Two categories within it are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) which is most efficient and Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) which is yet to be made.
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India: India has 18 working PHWR. AHWR would be the third stage of the Fast Breeder Reactor. Fast Breeder Reactor: No moderator is required to slow down the speed of fast moving neutrons.
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○ India: India has 2 FBR however they are not formally producing electricity. ■ (^) Kalpakkam Fast Breeder Reactor has successfully completed core loading Rajasthan Atomic Power Project's Unit-7 (RAPP-7) has successfully achieved criticality. Note: Criticality is a state where a sustained nuclear chain reaction is occurring.
Fusion occurs when two atoms slam together to form a heavier atom, like when two hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom. Additional neutrons and energy are also released. Nuclear fusion reactions take place in the sun's core. Fusion reactions take place in a fourth
Advanced Nuclear Technologies
Fusion Reactor / Thermo Nuclear Reactor / TOKAMAK
● Aim: The combination of power reactors from all the three stages is expected to ensure long-term energy security for the country. But the commercial utilisation of thorium on a significant scale can begin only when abundant supplies of either U233 or Pu239 are available.
● Advantage: It is based on the ‘closed fuel cycle’ where by- product from one stage is treated as fuel for the next stage. ○ In stage 3 there will be less nuclear waste is produced
state of matter called plasma.
○ Deuterium (^ H): Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen, which, unlike “normal” hydrogen atoms, or protium, also contains a neutron. The isotope deuterium has one proton, one neutron and one electron.
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■ Where is it Found: There’s 33 grams of deuterium in every cubic metre of seawater, so that the ocean contains tons of the isotope. The natural abundance of deuterium differs from one water source to another.
○ Tritium^ (^ H):^ Tritium^ is^ a^ radioactive^ isotope^ of^ hydrogen.^ It^ has^ the^ same^ number^ of^ protons^ and electrons as hydrogen but has 2 neutrons, whereas regular hydrogen does not have any. This makes tritium unstable and radioactive.
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■Where is it Found: A nuclear transmutation reaction of a neutron with lithium-6 produces more tritium.
● Use of Fusion Energy: One of the uses of fusion energy is Power Generation which could be very cheap (Rs. 4 per unit). The work for commercially viable energy is under process. ○ Destructive use i.e. hydrogen bombs which many countries like India have already made. ● Tokamak: For the development of fusion energy, the Tokamak reactor was established. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER): ○ ITER is an international mega-project to develop the world's^ largest^ and^ energetically^ viable fusion reactor based on tokamak technology. It is located in Cadarache , southern France. ITER will use 50 MW of input power to produce 500 MW of output power. The project was started in 2007 by 7 founding members→ European Union (EU), USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea and India. The European Union (EU) holds the largest share with 46% of the contribution. Other countries contribute 9% each, with notable involvement from the USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, and India.
Currently, 35 countries are involved in ITER, contributing to the project’s development and success.
After the success of this experiment, India will get its right for this technology to develop in India and
create its own fusion powered reactors.
● India: Tokamak reactor was established under^ Institute (Gujarat). This reactor is known as ‘Aditya’.
Plasma Research
TOKAMAK
For the development of the fusion reactor, Tokamak was being produced under the Institute for Plasma Research, Gujarat. This reactor is known as ‘Aditya’ and has been working since 1996. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER): It is an international mega project to develop the world’s largest and energetically viable fusion reactor based on Tokamak technology.
Note: Micro nuclear reactors’ power generation is lesser than 10 MWe
○ They are small in size and flexible in design. Hence, can be constructed anywhere. Thus saving cost and construction time.
Floating Nuclear Plant
The Akademik Lomonosov is a first-of-its-kind floating nuclear power station. About The Power Station: Named after the 18th-centuryRussian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, the 21,000-tonne floating plant is 144 m long and 30 m wide, and contains two nuclear reactors of 35 MW each. Run by the state-owned nuclear energy corporation Rosatom, the Akademik Lomonosov is expected to have a working life of 40 years. Need of Plant: The plant will supply electricity to the Chukotka region, where important Russian national assets such as oil, gold, and coal reserves are located. As of December 19, 2024, Akademik Lomonosov has supplied about 978 million kWh of electricity to the Chaun-Bilibino energy hub in Chukotka, meeting the region’s energy needs for more than a year.
Meaning: RTG is a small compact lightweight power system mainly used for deep space missions. ○ RTGs (Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators) are used to power spacecraft by converting heat from the radioactive decay of plutonium-238 into electricity using thermocouples. They’re very reliable because they have no moving parts to break. ○^ Thermocouples: Thermocouples to convert heat into electricity. Working: Plutonium-238 is naturally radioactive and produces heat as it decays. This heat contrasts with the cold surroundings in space, creating a temperature difference (thermal gradient). That gradient is used by thermocouples to generate electricity. Why are They Used in Deep Space: In deep space missions at many places there is unavailability of sunlight. In such space missions RTGs can be used because they can provide sustained energy for a long time. ○ In this technology no fission reaction takes place. India: In 2023, ISRO produced the same technology for future deep space missions. Other Countries: This technology was already with NASA (Cassini Mission) and other space agencies.
Radioactive Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)
While lots of different types of SMRs are being developed, there are currently four main types, each using a different coolant to manage the extreme heat of a nuclear fission reaction — light water, high temperature gas, liquid metal, and molten salt.
Types of SMRs
China’s Thorium Molten Salt Reactor The US explored thorium reactors, especially molten salt types, back in the 1960s before shelving them in favour of uranium-based designs. However, China swiftly picked up the technology left on the table by the Americans and created a secret facility in the Gobi Desert, near the Mongolian border. It is a small, 2MW facility, but enough to catapult China into a thorium regime.
