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SHS 465-Exam two questions with
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Phonology - correct answer ✔✔The sound of a language, how they are organized to form words. The child's learning how to pronounce the words of the native language. Phonological contrast - correct answer ✔✔difference between "pay" and "bay" Aspiration - correct answer ✔✔"Pay"- with aspiration "Spy"- without aspiration What does a child need to learn? - correct answer ✔✔Speech Sounds (consonants & vowels) expl: fish, butter, elephant Phonotactics - correct answer ✔✔How speech sounds combine to form words. Allowed combinations of phonemes in a particular lang. expl: splash (yes) , psash (no), splash (could be, but not an actual word) Apraxia of Speech - correct answer ✔✔Individuals have a difficult time producing intended speech. Pronounce every phoneme individually. Coarticulation - correct answer ✔✔Preparing articulators to make the next sound How many words are in the English Language? - correct answer ✔✔Hard to count, but some say up to a million
How many words do you need to speak a language? - correct answer ✔✔about 25,000 words to KNOW a language and about 3,000 to speak it. Speech acquisition: age vs. vocab size - correct answer ✔✔Relating speech acquisition to vocab size is probably more effective than by age Mental representations - correct answer ✔✔We form abstract categories. We look for distinctive characteristics such as aspiration and determine differences between phonemes Child needs to acquire: - correct answer ✔✔Consonants Vowels Syllables Words Babbling - correct answer ✔✔birth to 1 year -speech play First words appear at what age? - correct answer ✔✔1; Child slowly acquires 50 words or so at what age? - correct answer ✔✔1;0 to 1; First word combinations appear at what age? - correct answer ✔✔1; Characteristics of child's first words - correct answer ✔✔-Simple syllables e.g. CV or CVC, reduplication ('mama') -Sounds are limited:
Holistic Sentences - correct answer ✔✔- Term or a complete sentence, can only be understood through its relations to a (previously understood) larger segment of language. Presyntactic forms - correct answer ✔✔Brief, unstressed phonetic material around lexical words. e.g. "doggie" Word Spurt - correct answer ✔✔Age 1;6: child shows rapid increase in word acquisition
- Rate increases to 6 words or so a day
- The child's phonology needs to keep up with new sounds, syllables Patterns of Emergence - correct answer ✔✔1. Lexical, e.g. 'mama'
- Gradual spreading to new words
- Sudden emergence Salience & Avoidance - correct answer ✔✔Preferred sounds & templates (similar syllables and shared sounds) vs. Avoided sounds. e.g. Waterson preferred templates; T avoided [p], Ian avoided fricatives, using "lemon" Aspects of the First 50 Words - correct answer ✔✔1. Whole Word Complexity
- Syllable Structure
- Phonetic Inventories
- Phonological Processes Whole Word Complexity - correct answer ✔✔- First words are phonologically simple (e.g. dog, cat, fish, mama, dada) -Complexity increases due to:
- More syllables (banana, elephant)
- Consonant clusters (splash, branch) ⎫ - sequence of two or more consonants Early Syllable Shapes (stoel study/results) - correct answer ✔✔- Stoel-Gammon results on 33 2- yr-olds; 12 words
- CV, V (all samples); CVC (97%)
- CVCV (79%), CVCVC (65%)
- Some instances of clusters Phonological Processes - correct answer ✔✔-Efforts by child to simplify words until they are learned correctly -Characterize acquisition from first words to age 6 or so Final Consonant Deletion - correct answer ✔✔Omit wods final consonants to preserve CV; e.g. 'back' spoken as 'baa' Unstressed Syllables Deletion - correct answer ✔✔delete a syllable that carries weak stress. e.g. 'banana' spoken as 'nana' Cluster Reduction - correct answer ✔✔delete consonant combinations, e.g. 'play' spoken as 'pay' What are the 3 ways to Simplify Syllables in the syllable processes? - correct answer ✔✔1. Final Consonant Deletion
- Unstressed Syllable Deletion
- Cluster Reduction
- Postvocalic Devoicing (e.g. 'pig' [bik]) NeoJakobson Approach (Jakobson) - correct answer ✔✔1. Syllable structure: Start with CV or reduplicated CV, (ma, mama, pa, papa) Expand to CVC, CVCV
- Acquire features that distinguish: a) a place distinction (b vs. d) b) differences between classes stops vs. nasals,(m vs. b) stops vs. fricatives (t vs. s) stops vs. glides (b vs. w) What is Joan Velten's First Words Syllable Summary? - correct answer ✔✔-CV -VC -CVC -CV=CV -CVCV What was Joan's Phonological Processes? - correct answer ✔✔1. Syllable Deletion (bottle [ba], banana [na:'na])
- Final Consonant Deletion (ban [ba])
- Voicing (push [bus])
- Fronting
(duck [dat], push [bus]) Cross Linguistic Issues - correct answer ✔✔1. Phonological inventories
- Phonotactics
- Functional load: number of contrasts for a particular phoneme (dental fricatives n English and Greek) -Order of acquisition is influenced by the number of words that a phoneme occurs in (Italian [v]) Sounds and syllables increase in... - correct answer ✔✔number and complexity What the type of overextension (categorical vs. analogical) are these?
- 'tick tock' for water
- 'truck' for car
- 'hat' for basket' - correct answer ✔✔1. analogical
- categorical
- analogical true or false? Overextensions tend to be categorical - correct answer ✔✔true True or false? The first words acquired are more likely to be overextended - correct answer ✔✔true True or False? Overextensions are more likely in comprehension than production - correct answer ✔✔false
Proximity - correct answer ✔✔= PMLUchild/ PMLUtargets; Over/under 50% Examples: knife [n ai f] 5 [nai] 3 etc... What is a word? In order how does it happen..? - correct answer ✔✔Comprehension, production with any meaning, production with adult meaning, phonologically correct How many words in the living dictionary? - correct answer ✔✔4,000 words Medora Smith (1926) - correct answer ✔✔AGE Words Acquired -0;8 0 -0;10 1 -1;0 3 -1;3 19 -1;6 22 -1;9 118 Benedict (1979) - correct answer ✔✔How Many Understood vs. How many produced -8 children -Longitudinal study -Comprehension (C) and Production (P) -Rate and Gap between C & P (look at table) -Rate of C twice as fast as P for 50 words -Up to 100 words understood before first words -BUT: rate and gap are independent
e.g. David 1;3 C= 80, P= 40; Elizabeth 1;2 C= 150 P= 0 Piaget's Diary - correct answer ✔✔How many words does this child have?
- At ½ he said bow wow to a dog but also to a hen, a cow bell, and a cat
- 1;3(5) he said bowwow to anything moving from an ant to a tractor
- 1/3 (13) here is a differentiation: "moo" for cows, dee; "kitty" for cats. Pigs were either "moo" or "kitty" because the child organized by size we assume. Nominals - correct answer ✔✔Specific: individuals (mommy, Rachel) General: all members of a category (cookie) Problem: How to distinguish the two e.g. 'daddy' (all men), 'doggie' (family dog) Categories of Nominals - correct answer ✔✔1. Sound effects 'meow', 'moo'
- Food and Drink, 'apple', 'juice
- Body Parts & Clothing, 'eye', 'hat'
- House & Outdoors, 'cup', 'tree'
- People, 'baby' 'daddy' 'mommy'
- Toys & Vehicles, 'ball', 'car' What does pMLU stand for? - correct answer ✔✔Phonological Mean Length of Utterance pMLU.. how does it work? - correct answer ✔✔-one point for each consonant & vowel -one point for each correct consonant -scores range from 1 to 8 or more
Which group uses the most Specific Nominals? Actions? Modifiers - correct answer ✔✔Expressive Children use all categories more often than referential children except for General nominals (T/F) Expressive children are using more general nominals than personal-social, even though it is much higher in referential children NEED TO KNOW TABLE - correct answer ✔✔True Why are children referential or expressive? - correct answer ✔✔-Environmental -Individual preferences Continuum of genetics and environmental factors How are categories acquired in comprehension and production? - correct answer ✔✔Rate of Acquisition -Action words- HIGHER in comprenhension -General nominals- HIGHER in production -Specific nominals- SIMILAR for comprehension and production Conclusion in comprehension vs. production - correct answer ✔✔Qualification: our conclusion did not consider longitudinal change New conclusion: There is a continuum form early action words to greater use of General Nominals over time (T/F) Words first appear in comprehension & then in production - correct answer ✔✔True (T/F) Rate and Gap are independent - correct answer ✔✔True
General Pattern of Overextensions - correct answer ✔✔1. Underextenision
- Overextension
- Appropriate Use Piaget Example - correct answer ✔✔-At 1;2 (34) he said "bowwow" to a dog, but also to a hen, a cow-bell, cows themselves, guinea pigs and a cat -At 1;3 (5) he said "bowwow" to anything moving, from an ant to a tractor in the field -At 1;3 (13) there's a differentiation: "moo" for cows, deer; "kitty" for cats, pigs were either "moo" or "kitty" Laura Example #1 - correct answer ✔✔"ball" 1;0 (9) picture of ball in book; 1;0 (9) to 1;
- a ball, 2. round objects (orange, grapefruit, buzzer), 3. Request for servings of liquid in cup Laura Example #2 - correct answer ✔✔"cookie" 1;0 (9) for cookies 1;0 (9) to 1;4 Novel round foods (cheerios, cucumber); Record players or music on hi-fi or car radio; Rocking and/or rocking chair; Ice cream Two kinds of Overextensions - correct answer ✔✔Categorical and Analogical Categorical overextension - correct answer ✔✔Application in a higher order category, examples: 'dada' for mother; 'truck' for bus; 'apple' for orange
- Type Assumption
- Basic Level Assumption
- Mutual Exclusivity Whole word assumption - correct answer ✔✔Words refer to whole objects, e.g. the collie is the whole animal, not just its nose, head, collar, etc. Type Assumption - correct answer ✔✔Words refer to a category, not an individual, e.g. the collie is a type of dog, not the name of this collie Basic Level Assumption - correct answer ✔✔Words refer to objects that are alike in basic ways, e.g. 'collie' is not a word for animals, but for the class of animals that look like this one Mutual Exclusivity - correct answer ✔✔Words differ in meaning, e.g. 'collie' does not mean 'dog, 'nose' etc., i.e. words the child knows Linguistic Strategies - correct answer ✔✔-Language structures provide insight to meanings (articles indicate members of a class; lack of articles indicates names and classes) e.g. "this is a dog" vs "this is Ben" vs. "these are dogs" -Research with children as young as 1;6 show evidence that children are sensitive to the role of articles -Syntactic Bootstrapping Syntactic Bootstrapping - correct answer ✔✔Linguistic strategies may be especially important or the acquisition of verbs, adj, prepositions, etc. e.g. 'the dog glipped the cat' (by knowing syntax, you can use structure to know what's going on)
(T/F) Cognitive strategies work best for nouns - correct answer ✔✔True (T/F) Linguistic strategies may play larger role for verbs and adjectives - correct answer ✔✔True Two Kinds of Words - correct answer ✔✔Lexical Class and Functional Class Lexical Class Words - correct answer ✔✔Carry major meanings of sentences: noun, verb, adj, adv. Functional Class Words - correct answer ✔✔Modulate the meanings of lexical class words e.g. The, an, but Two Categories of Morphemes - correct answer ✔✔bound vs. free Bound morpheme - correct answer ✔✔Functional categories affixed to lexical categories Noun: plural {-s}, e.g. two cat/s, possessive {-s}, e.g. cat/'s paw Verb Inflections: Progressive {-ing} e.g. walk/ing Regular present {-s} e.g. walk/s Past tense {-ed}, e.g. walk/ed Free Morpheme - correct answer ✔✔-Separate words Prepositions, e.g. 'in', 'on', 'under' Articles, 'the', 'a'
Percentage of Obligatory Occurrence - correct answer ✔✔How often is a morpheme used when it is required? -Commonly used e.g. Plural {-s} 'I got two toy/s' 'see those boy' 'my cup/s' 67% (2/3) What percent indicates acquisition? (Brown) - correct answer ✔✔90% Some problems Not good for all morphemes, articles 'the' vs 'a' "I want cookie" auxiliaries, e.g. "mommy go tomorrow" Requreis reading child's mind to an extent e.g. "two cookie" -Low reliability: studies don't often agree -Doesn't consider allomorphs MLU in Morphemes - correct answer ✔✔Commonly used (can increase due to added words and DIFFICULT TO DO) e.g. 'don't', 'I'll', 'hablo' 1st person, present, singular Recommendation: Use MLU in words Counting actual occurrences - correct answer ✔✔-Use of morphemes increase over time -Simplest measure -MOST RELIABLE Brown (1973) - correct answer ✔✔14 grammatical morphemes Obligatory Occurrence I. 'on' 'plural'
II. 'ing', 'in', past irregular IV possessive Brown's conclusions: -Few grammatical morphemes acquired during the first 4 stages -Irregular past preceded regular past -Plural and -ing first inflections acquired Cazden (1968) - correct answer ✔✔Adam, Eve, Sarah; 5 inflections Measures: -Correct use -Inappropriate use, e.g. 'one dogs' -Overgeneralizations, e.g. 'two foots' (TABLE) Interpretation: -inapprop. use precedes overgen. -inapprop. use is a lexical error -overgen. only occurs when there is a high rate of success Marcus et al. 1992 - correct answer ✔✔English past tense 11,521 irregular past tense verbs, 83 Ss Low rate of overgen. 2.5% Explanation: -irregulars are memorized; rule for regulars -retrieval of irreg. blocks rule -errors are retrieval errors; i.e. when retrieval fails, rule is applied Berko (1958) - correct answer ✔✔-5 & 6 year olds
