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Structured Computer Organization - Principles of Computer Architecture - Lecture Slides, Slides of Advanced Computer Architecture

Amity University - BiharAdvanced Computer Architecture

In this short course we study the basic concept of the principle of computer architecture. In these lecture slides the key points are:Structured Computer Organization, Languages, Levels, Virtual Machines, Interpretation, Number of Layers, Multilevel Machine, Digital Logic Level, Arithmetic Logic Unit, Microprogram, Microarchitecture Level

Typology: Slides

2012/2013

Uploaded on 04/23/2013

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Structured Computer Organization
•A computer’s native language, machine
language, is difficult for human’s to use to
program the computer
–Due to this difficulty, computers are often
structured as a series of abstractions, each
building on the one below it
–In this way, complexity can be mastered
–This approach is called structured computer
organization
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Structured Computer Organization

• A computer’s native language, machine

language, is difficult for human’s to use to

program the computer

  • Due to this difficulty, computers are often

structured as a series of abstractions, each

building on the one below it

  • In this way, complexity can be mastered
  • This approach is called structured computer

organization

Languages, Levels, and Virtual

Machines

  • Let the machine language be called L0 (since it is

at the lowest level of abstraction)

  • L0 is inconvenient for human use, so let’s design a

new language L1 which is easier

  • A program written in L1 must be translated into an equivalent L0 program before it can be executed
  • Another possibility is to write a program in L0 that examines each individual instruction and executes the equivalent sequence of L0 instructions. This technique is called interpretation and the program is called an interpreter.

Computer as Multilevel Machine

Contemporary Multilevel Machines

• Most modern computers consist of two or

more levels (as many as six)

  • The lowest level is the digital logic level

constructed from gates

  • Each gate has one or more digital inputs and computes some simple function of the inputs such as AND or OR. Gates are built up from transistors.
  • A small number of gates can be combined to form a 1- bit memory. 1-bit memories can be combined to from 16, 32, or 64 bit registers which can hold a single binary number.

Contemporary Multilevel Machines

  • Level 2 is the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) level. This level consists of the instructions that can be carried out by the computer.
  • The facilities added at level 3 are carried out by an interpreter running at level 2 called an operating system. This level is called the operating system level.
  • Levels 4 and 5 are used by application programmers (only systems programmers use the lower three levels). The languages of levels 4 and 5 are usually translated while those of levels 2 and 3 are always interpreted.

Contemporary Multilevel Machines

  • Levels 4 and 5 provide symbolic languages while the machine languages of levels 1, 2, and 3 are numeric.
  • Level 4 is the assembly language level. It provides a program called an assembler which translates a symbolic form of the level 1, 2, or 3 language.
  • Level 5 consists of high-level languages such as BASIC, C, C++, and Java. Programs written in these languages are translated to level 3 or 4 languages by translators known as compilers.

Evolution of Multilevel Machines

  • The first digital computers had only two levels: the ISA level (where programming was done) and the digital logic level. The digital logic circuits were very complicated. - In 1951, Maurice Wilkes suggested the idea of a three-level computer in order to simplify the hardware. The machine was to have a built-in unchangeable program (the microprogram whose function was to execute ISA-level programs. The microprogram was easier to implement in hardware then the instruction set, so the circuits needed were simpler. - A few three-level machines were constructed in the 1950s, more during the 1960s and by 1970 microprogrammed machines were dominant.

Evolution of Multilevel Machines

  • Early computers were operated directly by a programmer (or a computer operator) who entered a deck of cards containing (e.g.) a FORTRAN program. The program was translated to machine language, output on cards and subsequently run.
  • Around 1960 people tried to reduce wasted time by automating the operator’s job. A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times. The programmer provided certain control cards along with the program that were read and carried out by the operating system.

A Sample Job for FMS OS

Evolution of Multilevel Machines

  • Early operating systems read card decks and printed output on the line printer. These were known as batch systems. In the early 1960s timesharing systems in which users were connected to the CPU using terminals and the CPU was shared were introduced.
  • Due to the ease of introducing new instructions in microprogrammed architectures, by the 1970s instruction sets had grown large and the microprogram large and slow. At this point researchers realized that by simplifying the instruction set and implementing it directly in hardware the computer could be much faster.

First Bus-Based System

The IBM 360 Product Line

Moore’s Law

The Computer Spectrum

• Although PCs are the most common type of

computer, there are others as well

  • Disposable computers are found in greeting cards
  • Embedded computers are found inside devices such as telephones, televisions, CD players and toys
  • Game computers have a CPU, memory, a display and not much else (Personal Digital Assistant and Network Computers are similar)
  • Servers are similar to high-end PCs and may contain multiple CPUs as well as large secondary storage capabilities and high-speed networking