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SYNTAX
- Contrast parts of speech, word classes, and grammartical categories.
- Parts of speech is puzzling : phonemes, allophones, morphemes, allomorphs or even phrases or sentences.
- Word classes is valuable in its simplicity.
- Grammartical category is a useful one. 2.How do major classes differ from minor classes? Major classes Minor classes 1. The major classes – nouns, verb,adjectives and adverbs- have a great many members.
- Have referential meaning (reference to actual things, actions, events,properties) Ex: Horses means that kind of animals. 3.Major classes are receptive to new members, also called open classes. Teflon, yuppie, nerd (nouns), scam, boot up, book (verbs), rad, gnardly, killer, tubular (adjectives). 1.The minor classes- pronouns, numerals, determiners, prepositions, conjucntions, and so on- have memembers. It’s easy to list all the articles of English: a/an/the. 2.Minor class words tend not to have referential meanings. 3.Minor classes are not receptive to new members, they are closed. It’s unlikely you can think of any last new slangy article, conjunction, pronoun or preposition, determiners, numerals. 3.How are major /open classes defined by Stageberg and Oaks ( 2000)? In defining major/open classes, Stageberg and Oaks (2000) present a double-track classification, one by form, resulting in “ form classes” (2000:163-177) , and the other by position within the sentence, resulting in “ positional classes” (2000:249-270). 4.How are nouns identify? How many noun inflectional suffixes are there in English? What are they?
- Nouns are identified by 2 aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes. The 2 noun inflectional suffixes in English are:
- The noun plural morpheme {-S1}: book-s, apple-s, box-es,etc.
- The noun possesive morpheme {-S2}: man-‘s, girl-‘s, student-‘s, Alice’s... Also, nouns are identified by noun-forming derivational suffixes added to verbs, adjectives, nouns, and bound bases: Accept – acceptance, big- bigness, book-booklet, tail-tailor,etc. 5.How are verbs identify? How many verb inflectional suffixes are there in English? What are they? - Verbs are identified by 2 aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
- The 4 verb inflectional suffixes in English are:
- The verb third person singular present tense morpheme {-S3}: walk-s, find-s, mix-es,etc.
- The verb present participle morpheme { -ing1}: play-ing, typ(e)-ing, dig(g)-ing,etc.
- The verb past simple morpheme {-D1}: flow-ed, work-ed, creat(e)-ed, drank,broke,etc.
- The verb past participle morpheme{-D2}: ex(như D1) Also, verbs are identified by verb-forming derivational affixes added to nouns, adjectives and bound bases: knowledge – acknowledge, ripe- ripen, large- enlarge, sanct- sanctify, etc. 6.How are adjectives identify? How many adjectives inflectional suffixes are there in English? What are they? Adjectives are identified by 2 aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes. The 2 adjective inflectional suffixes in English are:
- The adjective comparative morpheme {-er1}: small-er, saf(e)-er,etc. +The adjective superlative morpheme{-est1}: small-est, safe(e)-est,etc. Also, adjectives are identified by adjective-forming derivational suffixes added to nouns, verbs, and bound bases: athlete-athletic, child-childish, shake-shaky,read-readable,etc. 7. How are adverbs identify? How many adverbs inflectional suffixes are there in English? What are they?
11.What are finite verbals? What are nonfinite verb forms? How many nonfinite verbs form are there? Verb forms that are capable of full assertion in a sentence and of changing their form to indicate person, number, otlr tense are called finite verb and by position they are finite verbals. The second sort of verb forms is the nonfinite. These do not assert fully and do not change their form to indicate person, number, or tense. ( Nonfinite verb form ) There are 3 nonfinite verb forms: the present participle, the past participle and (to-)infinitive.
12. How many positions can adjectival occupy? Give examples of the most three common positions? Adjectivals occupy certain characteristic sentence position. 1, The position between the determiner (a, the, this, that, these, those, his, her, our, their, someone’s ) and the noun That joyful/college /laughing /recommended freshman joyful/college /laughing /recommended are an adjective, a noun, present participle and a past participle And here are non-suffixing words in this adjectival slot - an inside job - her inmost thought A series of adjectivals may occur between the determiner and the noun, as in - the many earnest university seniors 2, The position right after AN INTENSIVE VERB This post-noun position accepts adjectives, adverbs, verbs (participle), non-suffixing words and word groups: -The girl jogging IS my sister -The blondes especially WORE blue -The floor below IS rented When an adjective in this post-noun position, it usually does not occur alone, but with another adjectival, as in -The waitress, old and weary, SAT down heavily Or with an modifier,as in -The plumber, rather angry, THREW shadows around the room
Words composed of any-, every-, no-, or some-plus-body, -one, -place, or - thing can be followed by an adjectival: -We cannot find any place desinable -Nothing excited happened.
4. The sot at the beginning of a sentence before the subject - Angry and upset , the applicant slammed the door
- The position right after the direct object of A COMPLEX TRANSITVE VERB -The management CONSIDERED him competent -His atttude MAKES her very unpopular with colleages There is a group of about seventy-five, mostly of two sylables, Which begin with the prefix a- : a foot, a ground, a gape, a wake, ete. “These are uninflected words (UW’s) because they take no inflectional endings. Athough they do have the prefix a- in common, it seems unwise to label them formaly as ether adjectives or adverbs since positionally they appear in both adjectival and adverbal slots. (Stageberg 1965: 205-206) 13. What are adverbials? How many positions can an adverbial occupy? Give examples of the most three common positions? Adverbials are the word groups as well as the single words that occupy the adverb positions and perform the adverb functions. Common adverbal positions are: 1, The initial position : The adverbial is in the first position in the clause with or without juncture, occurring before the subject or other obligatory elements of the clause (1)a. Really, you SHOULD KNOW better. b. Now it IS time to go c.By using a little red here, you CAN BALANCE your colours. d. Unless you FOLLOW the printed directions, the set WILL not FIT properly together 2, The medial position : Ths includes all positions between obligatory initial and final clausal elements. Several more specific positions can be distinguished :
In this example, the postverb slot is occupied by the form class of noun (doughnuts) so that the word is positionally nominal. He EATS fast. In the second illustration, we can substitute the adverb quickly for fast.Thus fast is called an adverbial. The passive transformation offers another test to distinguish nominals from adverbials in this postverb position. If we compare He FATS Wednesday. He EATS sandwiches. We see that the first cannot be made passive, for no one woukd say *Wednesday WAS EATEN by him. Hence Wednesday is not a nominal but an adverbial. But we can say Sandwiches WERE EATEN by him Therefore, in “He EATS sandwiches,” the word sandwiches is a nominal. Another way to spot adverbials is by their mobility. Most adverbials can be moved to one or more positions in the sentence without disturbing the sentence pattern or sound un-English. As a last resort for identifying adverbias, try elimination. If the term in question is not a nominal, verbal, or adjectival- and not a structure word then it is by elimination an adverbial. It must never be forgotten that we are dealing with a positional class and that any form class can be an adverbial, e.g. Noun He WILL COME Sunday. Verb. They STOOD eating. Adjective They PLAYED dirty; COME quick. Adverb. COME quickly.
14. According to Jackson (1992) , what do minor/ closed classes consist of? Jackson’s (1982:9-11) minor/ closed classes consist of pronouns that “have the main finction of substituting for nouns, once a noun has been mentioned
in a particuar text”; numerals that “are of two kinds:ordinal and cardinal”. Determiners that “are used with nouns and have the function of defining the reterence of the noun in some way”. Prepositions the chief function of which is “relating a noun phrase to another unit”, and conjunctions that “are of two kinds: co-ordinating conjunctions , such as and, or, but, which join two items on an equal footing and subordinating conjunctions , such as when, if, why, whether, because, since , which subordinate one tem to another in someway”
15. Define pronouns. “have the main finction of substituting for nouns, once a noun has been mentioned in a particuar text” 16.Define numerals “are of two kinds:ordinal and cardinal”. 17. Define determiners. “are used with nouns and have the function of defining the reterence of the noun in some way”. 18.Define prepositions. The chief function of which is “relating a noun phrase to another unit” 19.Define conjunctions. “are of two kinds: co-ordinating conjunctions, such as and, or, but, which join two items on an equal footing and subordinating conjunctions, such as when, if, why, whether, because, since, which subordinate one tem to another in someway” 20. What are minor/closed classed was added by Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2011)? Fromkin, Rodman& Hyams (2011:88) add to minor/ closed classes the form class called auxiliaries”, which includes the verbs have, had, should, will, and would. However, these authors only identify one subtype of Jackson’s determiners namely “articles as a minor/ closed class, completely ignoring the other subtypes such as possessives demonstratives, and quantifiers. Dear Hiring Manager, I’m very excited to apply for the Teaching Assistant position at APOLLO English Center. I have a desire for an opportunity to make
