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WGU D265 Critical Thinking Exam Questions
and Answers | latest Update
Propositions - ✅✅Statements that can be true or false. simple proposition - ✅✅A statment expressing a basic assertion that can either be true or false Ex: the sky is blue Complex propositions - ✅✅A statement that is formed by combining two or more simple propositions with logical connectors (and, or, if then) Ex: the sky is blue and the grass is green. argument - ✅✅A set of propositions where some propositions (premises) are intended to support another proposition (conclusion) Ex: if it rains, the ground gets wet. It is raining. Therefore, the ground is wet. Inference - ✅✅The process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. Ex: given all humans are mortal, Socrates is human. We would infer, Socrates is mortal. Inductive argument/inference - ✅✅Derives general principles from specific observations. Ex: the sun has risen everyday so far. Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
Deductive argument/inference - ✅✅Derives specific predictions or conclusions based on general principles or premises. Propositions - ✅✅Can only be true or false and are the basic building blocks of arguments. Arguments - ✅✅Can only be valid (structure) or sound (structure+premises). premises - ✅✅Propositions that are used within an argument as the basis or reason for supporting the conclusion. They are statements that provide evidence or rationale for the arguments conclusion to be accepted as true. Conclusion - ✅✅The statement in a argument that the premises are intended to support or prove. It is what the arguer is trying to convince the audience to accept, based on the premises provided. valid deductive argument - ✅✅The structure guarantees the truth of the conclusion of the premises are true. Ex: all birds can fly, penguins are birds, therefore penguins can fly. (The argument is valid but not sound because the premise is false). invalid deductive argument - ✅✅The structure does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion even if the premises are true. Ex: some animals are cats, some animals are dogs. Therefore some dogs are cats. sound deductive argument - ✅✅A valid argument with true premises.
Invalid Argument Example - ✅✅If some animals are cats, and some animals are dogs, then some dogs are cats. sound argument - ✅✅a valid argument with true premises Sound argument example - ✅✅All men are mortal, Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal. unsound argument - ✅✅one that either is invalid or has at least one false premise Unsound argument example - ✅✅All birds can fly, all penguins are birds. Therefore all penguins can fly. (One premise is false because not all birds can fly). cogent argument - ✅✅an inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises Cogent argument example - ✅✅95% of the birds observed in the park are sparrows, therefore the next bird seen in the park will likely be a sparrow. uncogent argument - ✅✅An inductive argument is uncogent if either or both of the following conditions hold: the argument is weak, or the argument has at least one false premise.
Uncogent argument example - ✅✅2 of the 10 cars I have seen today are red. Therefore, 20% of all cars in the world are red. (It is a weak argument and has potentially one false premise). Premise Indicators - ✅✅Because For Given that Since As In that Indicated by Conclusion Indicators - ✅✅Therefore So It allows Hence/thus Entails that As a result We may conclude that antecedent - ✅✅The "if" part of a conditional statement. Consequent - ✅✅The "then" part of a conditional statement. Modus Ponens - ✅✅If p then q. p is true, therefore q is true.
Affirming the Consequent example - ✅✅If it rains, then the streets will be wet. The streets are wet, therefore it rained. (Ignoring other reasons the street could be wet). Denying the Antecedent Fallacy - ✅✅Assuming that if the antecedent is false, then the consequent must be false. Denying the Antecedent Fallacy example - ✅✅If it is a dog, it has four legs. It is not a dog, therefore it does not have 4 legs. (Ignoring that many other animals have 4 legs) confirmation bias - ✅✅the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses confirmation bias example - ✅✅Only reading news that aligns with your political beliefs. cognitive bias - ✅✅Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Cognitive bias example - ✅✅Choosing to skips school because all of your friends are skipping school. selection bias - ✅✅The selection of individuals, groups, or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved.
Selection bias example - ✅✅Conducting a survey on park usage by only interviewing people at the park. ad hominem fallacy - ✅✅Attacking the person making the argument, rather than the argument itself. Ad Hominem Example - ✅✅You can't trust johns opinion on finance as he is a high school dropout. straw man fallacy - ✅✅Misrepresenting someone argument to make it easier to attack. Straw Man Fallacy Example - ✅✅He said we should put more money into health and education. He obviously hates our military. appeal to ignorance fallacy - ✅✅Assuming something is true because it has not been proven false; vice versa. Appeal to Ignorance Example - ✅✅No one has shown that ghosts are not real. So they must exist. slippery slope fallacy - ✅✅When one event is said to lead to another (usually disastrous) event. Slippery Slope Example - ✅✅"We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!"
