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PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
♦ When segments combine to form words ⇒ changes or alternations.
♦ Main reasons for alternations:
o to ease the articulatory process or o to get a more natural sequence of sounds.
♦ On the other hand: need to maintain distinctiveness to ensure communication, restrains the tendency to ease articulation.
♦ Most frequent changes occur between juxtaposed segments but there can also be intervening segments (e.g. distant assimilations).
♦ Changes or alternations are due to Phonological Processes, which mediate between Underlying Level and Surface Level, ie, they transform underlying form into surface form.
♦ “Phonological” does not indicate that processes apply exclusively to phonemes. Both phonemic and allophonic changes are included under the term phonological processes.
♦ In Generative Phonology, Phonological processes are expressed in the shape of Rules.
♦ Classic Generative Phonology proposes four main categories of Phonological Processes:
1-Assimilation and Dissimilation
2-Weakening and Strengthening
3-Syllable Structure Processes
4-Neutralization
1-ASSIMILATION
- In assimilation a segment takes on features from a neighbouring segment, i.e., a segment becomes more like, or identical to, another.
- Traditionally assimilation term used for phonemic changes (one phoneme changes into another phoneme). However, really wider in scope and includes coarticulatory changes (nasalization of vowels, advancement / retraction of velars depending on following vowel, etc). To distinguish them : (phonemic) assimilation and coarticulatory assimilation (accomodation).
We can classify assimilations according to the direction in which the influence is exerted: Progressive or Perseverative Assimilation (from left to right): a feature of the segment on the left is carried onto the next segment. In the sequence A B > A influences B: A → B For example: plural & past tense morphemes in English Zy=Zr\ / [-voi ] [-sibilant] —— .jUay. .jUor. Regressive or anticipatory assimilations (from right to left): a segment anticipates features from the following one. In the sequence A B > B influences A: A ;← B For example: nasals before obstruents : .HMj. .Hlo. .sdl aNHy. [+ nasal ] → [α place ] / —— [ - son ] [α place ]
Assimilations may also beclassified according to the type of feature that is taken up: Place assimilation : palatilization, vowel height..... Stricture assimilation : (spirantization in Spanish voiced plosives
2-WEAKENING AND STREGTHENING
Also known as lenition and fortition. Typically lenition tends to ease articulation while fortition tends to enhance distinctiveness, although not always these effects.
2 strength hierarchies for consonants: 1 of openness and 1 of voicing:
the more airflow a segment permits, the weaker it is: STOP > FRICATIVE > APPROXIMANT > ∅ voiceless (fortis) segments are stronger than voiced (lenis) ones: VOICELESS > VOICED Consonats tipycally suffer lenition between vowels (intervocalically) Fortition usually occurs word initially or post-consonantally ♦ In lenition a segment can move to the right of either scale or both: Gen.Am. : /t/ /d/ → / 3 / / V__V (from plosive to approximant and also from [-voice] to [+voice]) /rzs?m/ → /rz3?m/ /rUc?m/ → /rU3?m/ ♦ Vowels: weakening usually leads to shortening and centralization
to schwa, for already weak vowels (lax and unestressed vowels) /Pu / → / ?u / /gzu / → / g?u / /jTc / → /j?c / to a shorter and/or centalized quality for tense vowels: /h9 / → /H/ /t9/ → /T/ ♦ The last stage of Weakening is , obviously, deletion 1.
(^1) Deletion is discussed under syllable structure processes because of its effect, however the nature of a deletion process is extreme weakening.
3- SYLLABLE STRUCTURE PROCESSES
- These processes affect distribution of segments within a syllable and/or word: Insertion, Deletion, Coalescence, Metathesis & Class Change.
- May lead to an easier articulation, to a more natural sequence (alternating Vs & Cs) or to preferred syllable structure of a language.
3.1 Deletion: last stage of weakening
.k‰@9rs mdHl. → .k‰@9r mdHl. to prevent a CCC sequence
.j @9 q N9 j R? m.. j@9 o@9j. : alternating Vs & Cs
3.2- Insertion or Epenthesis
♦ Frequently phonotactic insertion of initial segment, usually a vowel, fex Spanish pronunciation of English .rjt9k.→ .drjt9k. ♦ In the middle of a word, insertions of vowels to pevent CC sequences, e.g. .eHkl. → .eHk?l. (Irish English) ♦ Insertion of consonants to smooth the transition from one articulation to another , e.g. .vN9lS. → .vN9loS. (for ‘warmth’ )
3.3 Coalescence (Fusion or Merger)
♦ 2 segments are merged into 1 which shares features from both > kind of assimilation > bi- directional assimilation
- Examples of historical coalescence in English:
*.okdyi?. → .okdY?. *.mdHsit?. → .mdHsR?.
- Also Synchronic Coalescence:
.vTc iT. → .vTcYT. .v?Tms iT. → .v?TmsRT.
Archiphoneme: an abstraction consisting of the features common to the neutralized phonemes.
