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Deviation
Levels at which language is organized ü Substance, form and meaning. Substance ü Refers to the physical medium in which expression takes place (articulated sounds in speech or marks/letters on paper in writing). ü This level is analysed in terms of phonological or graphological rules (pronunciation and spelling). Form ü Refers to how sounds/marks become organized into words (vocabulary), and words into sentences (syntax). ü This level is analysed in terms of syntactic rules. Meaning ü Refers to the propositions that become encoded in form and substance. ü It’s analysed through semantics. Formulating the grammar of a language is ü Stating what rules govern at each of the 3 main levels.
Deviation ü Action of departing from an established course or accepted standard. Defamiliarization ü Effect of deviation through which we are able to see the world from unfamiliar and revealing angles. Naturalization ü Reconstruction of the context of a poem, taking this poem as an act of communication.
Rhetorical devices
Tropes
Trope ü Rhetorical figure based on meaning, including figurative language and non-figurative language.
Fi g u ra t i v e la n g u a g e
ü It produces defamiliarization.
Conservative metaphor ü Metaphor which reaffirms conventional ways of thought. Radical (defamiliarising) metaphor ü Metaphor which challenges conventional ways of thought by inviting us to look at something in a new way. The distance between the tenor and the vehicle is very great. It has the potential to defamiliarise a word.
Explicit (or definitional) metaphor ü A metaphor in which vehicle and tenor are explicitly expressed. Implicit metaphor ü A metaphor in which only the vehicle is explicitly expressed.
Metaphorical effect ü The effect caused by a metaphor of producing a new insight or pleasure through making us see an unexpected ‘similarity in difference’.
Simile or Comparison (Norton) ü Comparison, usually using the word ‘like’ or ‘as’, of one thing with another so as to produce sometimes surprising analogies. The ground of simile is similarity.
Difference between comparison and metaphor ü In comparison the vehicle is said to be like the tenor, that is, there is no identification between them. However, in metaphor there is identification between the vehicle and the tenor. This implies that in comparison the vehicle and the tenor are always expressed, while a metaphor can be an implicit metaphor (in which the tenor is not expressed).
Extended metaphor (or metaphor sequence) ü It is a figure of speech in which a metaphor is exploited at length through multiple linked vehicles, tenors and grounds. Conceit ü Similar to an extended metaphor but it is the whole poem that is structured around an initial metaphor. ü It can be classical or radical.
Poetic symbol ü Something that stands for something else, but it also exists in the context of the poem. So a symbol functions at the literal level and, at the same time, stands for something else figuratively. ü It can suggest a broad area of significance rather than any specific reference. Difference between poetic symbol and metaphor ü The poetic symbol functions at two levels, literal and figurative. The
Poetic allegory ü Fictional narrative, dialogue or scene which works on two parallel levels of meaning at one and the same time. There is coherent sense on a literal level, but there are usually strong signals in the text that we need to translate each detail of the surface story into another equally coherent story. Difference between poetic allegory and poetic symbol ü Poetic allegory tends to offer a code of interpretation which guides our translation of the surface details into a set of meanings which are limited and precise rather that suggestively imprecise.
Poetic apostrophe ü Rhetorical figure in which the poetic speaker addresses something non-human or abstract, or someone who is either absent or dead.
No n - fi gu r a t i v e l a n gu a ge
Pleonasm ü Semantic redundancy. ü It is hardly found in good poetry. Tautology ü Semantic redundancy which involves a kind of vicious circle. ü It is hardly found in good poetry. Periphrasis (Norton) ü The use of many words to express what would be expressed in few or one; circumlocutio n. Differences between pleonasm, tautology and periphrasis ü All of them use words that are not necessary. But while pleonasm and tautology are based on redundancy, periphrasis is just a circumlocution.
Oxymoron (pl.: oxymora or oxymorons) ü Figure of speech formed by a noun phrase composed of an adjective and a noun, and the idea of the adjective is opposed to that expressed by the noun. Paradox ü Figure of speech in which contradictory ideas are yoked together in two sentences or in two parts of the same sentence. Difference between oxymoron and paradox ü Both have in common the idea of contradiction, but they have different structure.
Hyperbole ü Overstatement, exaggeration (too much). Litotes
ü Understatement (too little). Irony
ü Repetition of the same grammatical/syntactic structure (it is a grammatical or syntactical device). Anaphora (repetition) ü Repetition of words (it is a lexical device). Geminatio ü A rhetorical term for repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis, with no words in between. It is a kind of anaphora.
Metre
Metre ü Regular flow of sounds following a certain pattern. Rhythm ü The flow of sounds and patterns of emphasis in a poem. It includes metrical pattern and its variations, musicality, caesaura, run-on lines, etc. Caesura ü Internal pause
Syllabic metre ü Based on the number of syllables per line (typical of French and Spanish poetry) Alliterative metre ü Based on the succession of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of certain words (Old English poetry). Quantitative metre ü Based on the succession of long and short syllables (Greek and Latin poetry) Strong stress metre ü All lines should have the same number of stresses (English poetry, particularly ballads in the Middle Ages). Accentual-syllabic metre ü Norton: Metre determined by the number of accents, but possessing a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, so as to produce regular numbers of syllables per line. ü It has two criteria: accents/stresses and number of syllables. The minimal unit is the foot. The kind of foot is defined by two criteria: the number of syllables and the pattern of accents.
Commonest types of foot
Anapaest , anapest /ˈæn ə piːst/
Anapaestic , anapestic /ˌæn ə ˈpiːst ɪk/◂
Dactyl /ˈdækt ɪl/ Dactylic /dæk ˈtɪl ɪk/ / ∪∪ Amphibrach /ˈæmp f i bræk/
Amphibrachic /ˌæmfɪˈbrækɪk/ ∪ / ∪
Rising rhythm ü Metrical pattern ending in an accented syllable Falling rhythm ü Metrical pattern ending in an unaccented syllable To scan a poem ü To mark the metrical patterns of a line of poetry Catalectic line ü Having an incomplete final foot. Defective foot ü Incomplete foot Hypermetric line ü Line of which expected metrical pattern is broken by at least one extra syllable. Run-on line or enjambment ü The continuation of a syntactic unit from one line to the next. End-stopped line ü Line in which contains a complete syntactic unit.
Others
Blank verse ü Unrhymed iambic pentameter Ballad stanza (or ballad measure) ü Quatrain with iambic feet, being the first and third tetrameter lines, and the second and fourth trimeter ones. Hyperbaton ü Rearrangement, or inversion, of the expected word order in a sentence or clause. Rhetorical question ü A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.
Free verse ü Kind of poetry that does not follow any regular metrical pattern. Usually, free verse makes no use of rhyme but if it does, it uses it occasionally.
Genre and Ballad
Genre ü Group of cultural products which we associate together because they show similar conventions. Genre for Structuralism ü Set of expectations which enable readers to naturalize texts. Genre for Tzvetan Todorov ü Function of discourse that a given society has made conventional. Decorum ü Norton: Rhetorical principle where by each formal aspect oa work should be in keeping with its subject matter and/or audience. ü Richard Nordquist: In classical rhetoric, the use of a style that is appropriate to a subject, situation, speaker and audience. ü Wikipedia: Appropriateness of style to subject Parody of a genre ü Imitation of the features of a genre but introducing different elements from original conventions. Allusion ü Indirect reference to something. Literary system ü Family network of genres and sub-genres related to each other through similarities and differences. Literary competence ü Internalization of the conventions and codes of the literary system to be able to interpret and analyse literary texts.
Ballad (popular/traditional/classical) ü Narrative poem which focuses on a single crucial event presented dramatically; its narrative voice is depersonalized (it makes no personal judgement). Characters are not psychologically described and there are very few rhetorical devices (mainly anaphora and parallelism). Broadside ballads ü Any ephemeral production sold by itinerant print-sellers printed on broadsheets. They were a product of the development of cheap print
in the 16 th century.
Narrative
● Narrative → the representation of an event or a series of events consisting of story and narrative discourse. Usually, a narration needs a narrator , but sometimes it is on of a number of instruments that can be used in the narrative process of representing events. ● Presentation and representation → pres. For stories that are acted and repress. for stories that are told or written. ● Story → is an event or sequence of events (the action) ● Narrative discourse → those events that are represented. ● Constituent (“kernels”) → are events that are necessary for the story, driving it forward. ● Supplementary (“satellites”) → events that do not drive the story forward and without which the story would still remain intact. ● Closure → When a conflict is solved in a narrative text or our expectations are fulfilled. ● End → every narrative have endings even if they are good or bad. There are two kind of end: the open end ( lack of closure ) and close end ( strong closure- classical text ).
Treatment of time
There are 3 kinds of relationships between the chronology and duration of the events in the story and their order and presentation in the narrative text.: A ) Order – connections between the temporal order of succession of the events in the story ( chronologically organized ). There are 5 types of figures : 1) Anachrony → any possible deviation from the chronology of the text. 2) Analepsis → retroversion or flashback. 3) Prolepsis → anticipation or flashword. There are explicit or implicit anticipations ( hints) 4) Complex anachronies → a discrepancy between the order of events in a story and the order in which they are presented in the plot : either flashbacks or flashforward **5) Achrony → deficiency of time, impossible to collocate in chronology event. B) Duration- different velocity of the narration. There are 5 types:
- Ellipsis →** omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader. It may be also the omission of some facts that are hidden from the reader. 2) Summary → A long event of time narrated briefly in a short period of time. 3) Scene → you already know how to explain it. 4) Pause → a temporary stop 5) Slow-down → the action goes slower. **C) Frequency. There are 4 types:
- Singular → something only happens once.
- Plurisingular→ similar event is presented more than once.
- Repetitive→ the same event seem from different points of view.
- Iterative→** something that usually happens but it doesn’t repeat in the plot , like the habits or a character that only say once what he usually do. ⁄ Pseudo-iterative is something that occurs frequently and it is
being explained in detail, usually in dialogues.
Characters and focalization
● Flat character → characters who have no hidden complexity, no depth and predictable behaviours. They are frequently found in comedy and satire and melodrama. There are no gaps to fill since what you see is what you get. ● Round character → characters that have varying degrees of depth and complexity. ● Direct definition of characterization → physical and/or psychological from the narrator or another character. ● Indirect presentation of charact. → “ “ deduced from character’s actions and words. ● Metafictional transgressions → characters come alive, fictions becomes reality. Relative closeness (empathy) and distance (irony).
● Cruxe → an element that depending on how we interpret it, can significantly effect how we interpret the whole.
● Focalization → perspective; the lens through we see characters and events in the
narrative. Influential element in the treatment and manipulation of characters and events
for the meaning the reader will assign to them. Tendency to identify and empathize with
the point of view offered.
- focalized object -- focalizer non-perceptible (np) perceptible (p) character (CF) (focalizer within fictional word)
- [free direct discourse (interior monologue)] 6
- [character as witness] external (EF) (focalizer external to fictional world)
- [omniscient] 3. [camera eye]
● Internal focal. → character. One or several focalizers , restriction of knowledge, unreliability and subjectivity, consciousness, free indirect discourse and direct discourse ( thoughts) ● External focal.→ narrator. Extremal approach, panoramic view , reliability and objectivity, indirect discourse
Narration
- Subsequent narration : past tenses use - Prior narration : future tenses use
- Simultaneous narration : present tense use - Interpolated narration : exchange of letters. ● Implied- author → is that sensibility that accounts for narrative. Every narration has its own implied author. We cannot rely on the narrator to act as a direct or indirect, representative of the implied author. Narrators are usually unreliable. ● Narrator → is described as an instrument or a device wielded by the author and the “material” author of a narrative is no way to be confused with the narrator of the narrative. Internal narrator (1st^ person ) and external narrator (3rd^ person). ● Distance → refers to the narrator’s degree of involvement in the story she tells. Different participants in the narrative communicative situation:
Participation in the story world : ● Diegetic world → fictional worlds in the story.
