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Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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ESSAY ACTIVATOR
1.1 Begin with an idea
USEFUL PHRASES
Introduce the main idea:
I tend to think that a later date would be more suitable. Many people argue that there is a strong case for capital punishment. I would like to ask you a few questions about John’s birthday party.
(a) ways of saying that something or someone is an exception
except prep used when saying that a statement does not include a particular person or
thing:
The office is open every day except Sundays. Most of the critics liked the play, except for one critic on the Los Angeles Times. Except in an emergency, these doors must remain closed.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Except and except for mean the same thing. You can use except for and except in
at the beginning of a sentence. Otherwise, except does not come at the beginning of a
sentence.
apart from/aside from prep used when mentioning one or two things that do not fit the
main thing that you are saying, especially when they are not very important:
Aside from one or two minor errors, this is an excellent piece of research. The films were all made in Hollywood, apart from one, which was made in the UK. The weather was not very good in the first week. Apart from that, it was a good holiday.
excluding/not including prep used when saying that something, especially a total
number or amount, does not include a particular thing or person:
The software costs $49.95, not including tax. Excluding students, the total number of unemployed rose from 2 million to 2.3 million.
STUDY NOTE : Grammar
Excluding is more formal than not including.
with the exception of/with one exception formal phrases used when you want to
emphasize that something does not include a particular thing or person:
Denmark has more wind turbines than any other place in the world, with the exception of California. With the exception of skin cancer, breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. The prisons are, with one exception , overcrowded and lacking in facilities for prisoners.
other than a phrase meaning except , used especially in negative sentences:
He had no interests other than teaching. No one other than her knew about the plan. Daley has said little about his childhood, other than that it was happy and normal.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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Some airlines will not allow you to take pets other than dogs, cats and birds.
in a few cases/in a small number of cases used when emphasizing that something
only happens a few times or to a few people:
In a few cases the information has gone missing from the files. Surgery can only help in a small number of cases.
(b) someone or something that is not included
exception noun [uncountable and countable] someone or something that is different
from the others and cannot therefore be included in a statement:
The health of most of the patients improved, although there were one or two exceptions , (=one or two patients did not get better) Apart from a few minor exceptions (=unimportant exceptions), the two countries' legal systems are very similar. Not many first-rate writers have written about film. A notable exception (=an important exception) is Grahame Greene, who reviewed movies regularly between 1935 and
1.2 Give more information
If something is unclear, you can give more information in the following sentence.
USEFUL PHRASES
Add an explanation or further information:
By young people I mean children under the age of twelve who are not yet completely responsible for their actions.
(a) What you say when you are explaining something
this means that/which means that used when saying what the results or effects of
what you have just said are:
Computer technology is constantly being improved. This means that the computer that you have just bought will probably be out of date in only a few months' time. There is a shortage of hospital doctors, which means that patients often have to wait a long time for treatment.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar You use This means that at the beginning of a sentence. You use which means that at the beginning of a clause.
that is used when explaining the meaning of the previous word or phrase, by giving
more information:
The book is about art in the modern period, that is , art since 1900. Her son suffers from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. That is , he finds it difficult to pay attention or stay quiet for more than a short period of time.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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outline verb [transitive] to explain the main ideas about something, without giving all
the details:
In his introduction, Piaget outlines the four main stages in a child's development. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the basic principles which form the foundations of the English legal system.
expand on phrasal verb to add more details or information to what has already been
said:
Melville saw the ocean as the source of all life. He expands on this idea in his novel, 'Moby Dick'. The author expands on this theme at length (=writes a lot about it).
clarify verb [transitive] to make something clearer:
This chapter aims to clarify some of the most important issues in genetics today. In his speech the prime minister attempted to clarify his position on economic reform.
1.3. Show concession
Often an argument has two sides. Show that you understand the weaker side to the
argument, but that you are not persuaded or not able to accept this idea.
USEFUL PHRASES
Add concession
Although I would be happy to come to your office, I'm afraid that this will not be possible until the end of the month. While I understand that this may be difficult, I feel that it is the only option. Despite the high levels of unemployment in that year, crime did not rise.
Linking parts of a sentence
(a) Words meaning “and” and “also”
also adverb used when adding another fact about someone or something, or when
mentioning another person or thing:
Smoking causes lung cancer. It has also been linked to heart disease. Although most of her books are for adults, she also writes for children. The country's mineral resources consist not only of diamonds but also of oil.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar Don't use also with two negative statements. Use not ... either. For example, don't write 'She does not drink. She also does not smoke.' when you mean: She does not drink. She does not smoke either.
too/as well adverb used when you are adding another fact about someone or
something:
Wind energy is cheap. It is good for the environment too. The long hours at work began to affect his health. They affected his personal life as well.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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in addition used when adding another piece of information to what you have just said.
In addition is often used when saying that something makes an amount even larger:
A fifth of the world's population lives on less than $1 a day. In addition , over 100 million children are living on the streets. Over 600 people will lose their jobs, in addition to the 400 people who left the company last year. In addition to being a major oil producer, Nigeria is home to over 110 million people.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar In addition, furthermore, and moreover are very commonly used in essays.
furthermore / moreover adverb used at the beginning of a sentence when adding an
important fact that is connected with what you have just said. Furthermore and
moreover are formal words, used especially when trying to persuade people to agree
with what you are saying:
The drug has strong side effects. Furthermore , it can be addictive. (=the writer is adding another fact to persuade the reader that the drug is dangerous) There is no evidence to link him with the murder. Moreover , the murder weapon has still not been found. (=the writer is trying to persuade us that the police do not have very much information)
not to mention used when adding something at the end of a sentence, which adds to
the main idea of what you have just said:
As he got older, his films became very strange, not to mention violent. Big 4-wheel-drive vehicles cause so much environmental damage through pollution, not to mention the danger they pose to pedestrians and cyclists.
(b) Words meaning “because”
due to/owing to preposition used to give the reason why something has happened:
The delay was due to a problem with the ship's engines. Local authorities have been slow to build recycling facilities, mainly owing to lack of money.
through preposition because of something. Through is used especially when saying
why someone succeeded or failed to do something:
She succeeded through her own efforts. They managed to win the game, partly through luck and partly through skill. Thousands of working days are lost each year through illness.
since (also as British English) conjunction used when giving the reason why someone
decides to do something or decides that something is true:
As it was a hot day, they decided to leave all the windows open. Since it is difficult to predict how the climate will change, it is not possible to say which countries will suffer the most.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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by contrast used when making comparisons and saying that a person, thing, or
situation is very different from the one you have just mentioned. By contrast is used
when referring back to the previous sentence:
The surface temperature on Venus is higher than the boiling point of water. Mars, by contrast , is very cold A report by the FBI shows that 26% of female murder victims in 1995 were killed by their husbands or boyfriends. By contrast , only 3% of male victims were killed by their wives or girlfriends.
yet conjunction used when introducing a fact that seems surprising after what you have
just said:
Last summer there was a drought, yet some people were still watering their gardens every day. We all know that fibre is important for good health. And yet all the natural fibre is removed from many foods such as white bread and sugar.
even so used when saying that something is true, in spite of a fact that you have just
mentioned:
Morris's furniture is distinctly English. Even so , the sale drew a lot of American interest. The economy continues to do well, but even so , many analysts are predicting a slowdown in the near future.
in spite of / despite preposition even though something happens or is true:
This was a dinosaur that weighed only 10 tons, in spite of being some 28 metres long. In spite of everything that has happened, life is still getting better for many Russians. Despite his lack of formal education, he became one of the world's leading mathematicians. Many people are worried that cell phones may be dangerous to health, despite the fact that most of the research suggests that there is little risk.
(d) words meaning “if”
unless conjunction if something does not happen, or if someone does not do
something:
Unless something is done quickly, developing countries will fall even further behind Western countries. The star is really difficult to see unless the sky is dark and very clear. The doctors said they could not treat the boy unless and until his parents gave their permission.
whether or not used when saying that it does not matter if something happens or not,
or if something is true or not:
Research showed that six out of 10 patients got better on their own, whether or not they received treatment. Whether or not you agree with what she is saying, her articles are always interesting and thought-provoking.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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otherwise adverb used when saying that there will be a bad result if someone does not
do something, or if something does not happen:
The committee needs to act quickly; otherwise there could be a serious problem. The local people are certainly glad that the tourists are there. Otherwise there would be no money and no jobs.
in case in order to deal with something that might happen:
Doctors have to take out insurance to protect themselves in case they are sued. It is best to keep a medical kit ready in case of emergency. She did not think it would rain, but she took her umbrella just in case.
assuming that if what you think will happen is true:
Assuming that the present trend continues, the world population is likely to rise to over 8 billion. This sort of floor covering can be laid directly onto concrete floors, assuming that they are level.
as long as/provided that conjunction only if something else happens or is true:
Vegetarian diets are perfectly healthy, provided that you take care to get enough iron, calcium and B vitamins. As long as the economy continues to grow, people will continue to support the government.
on condition that used when you agree to do something only if someone first agrees
to do something else:
- He was offered the job on condition that he went on a month-long training course.
- The painting was sold on condition that it never left France.
in the event of/that if something happens, especially a serious situation such as an
accident, a fire, or a war:
Guidelines have been issued to local authorities on what to do in the event of a nuclear accident. In the event of an earthquake, people are advised to take cover under desks or doorways. In the event that the party lost the election, his future as party leader would be in doubt.
(e) words meaning “in order to”
so (that) conjunction used when saying why someone does something or what the
result of something is:
Workers need to learn new skills so that they can keep up with the latest advances in technology. Doctors use miniature cameras so that they can see inside the patients' stomachs. The windows are designed so that you can see out, but other people cannot see in.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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hence adverb a formal word, meaning for this reason:
This material is highly poisonous, hence the importance of careful handling. Their names sound very similar. Hence they are often confused with each other.
as a result use this to say that because of a particular situation, something else
happens or is true:
Some people suffer from stress at work and become ill as a result. The farmer could not pump water onto his field and, as a result , he had grown only twenty tons of melons compared to eighty before the war. Economic growth slowed down as a result of inflation. As a result of her injuries, she was forced to abandon her hopes of going to medical school.
consequently / as a consequence adverb use this to say that because of a particular
situation, something else happens or is true:
The disease attacks the plant, the flower does not open, and consequently no seeds are produced. More people are using their cars, and as a consequence many rural bus services have been severely reduced. As a consequence of global warming, our climate is already starting to change. Lead remains forever in the atmosphere. Consequently , this year's lead pollution will add to that of all previous years.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Consequently and as a consequence are more formal than as a result.
for this reason / for these reasons used when explaining the reason for something:
She was not very good at ball games. For this reason she did not care much for sport or physical activities. If you live in a big city, housing is very expensive and there is so much pollution. For these and other reasons , more and more people are choosing to move out to the country.
with the result that use this to say that because of a particular situation, another
situation exists or happens:
Both laboratories were completely re-equipped last year, with the result that we now have the most modern facilities in the country. Taxes were increased, with the result that people had to work harder if they wanted to maintain their standard of living.
thereby adverb a formal word, used when saying what the result of something is. You
use thereby in the middle of a sentence, usually after a comma:
The two companies were merged, thereby creating a single company. If our homes are properly insulated, we need to use less oil or gas, thereby cutting the cost of heating them.
accordingly adverb a formal word, meaning as a result of what you have just said:
Too much alcohol can be harmful to health. Accordingly , on this diet you are allowed only one or two units of alcohol per day.
Lecturer: Dr. Sergio Maruenda
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He had disobeyed an order from a senior officer, and accordingly he was dismissed from the army.
1.4 Reject an idea
A strong way of making a point is to express your doubts about an argument, say what
you do not believe, or state what is not possible.
USEFUL PHRASES
Say what you do not think:
I am not convinced of the benefits of this proposal. I do not believe that this level of service is satisfactory.
State what is not possible or point out false conclusions:
It is not necessarily the case that an immediate ban on smoking would have a positive effect. I am afraid that I cannot accept the dates that you have suggested.
(a) writing about advantages
advantage noun [countable] a good feature that something has, which makes it better,
more useful etc than other things:
The great advantage of digital cameras is that there is no film to process. The advantage of using a specialist firm is that the people who work there have years of experience. The university has the advantage of being one of the oldest and best respected in the country. The movement of the sea is predictable. This gives wave power a distinct advantage over (=an obvious advantage compared to) wind power.
benefit noun [countable] a feature of something that has a good effect on people's
lives:
Regular exercise has many benefits , including reducing the risk of heart disease. Modern technology has brought great benefits to mankind. There has been a great deal of research into the potential benefits of using genetically modified crops.
merit noun [countable] a good feature that something has, which you consider when
you are deciding whether it is the best choice:
The committee will consider the merits of the proposals. The merits and demerits of (=the good and bad features of) alternative funding systems were widely discussed in the newspapers. The chairman saw no great merit in this suggestion. (=he did not think that it was a good idea)
plus point noun [countable] a good feature that something has:
The small but powerful battery is another of the camera's many plus points. The estate agent's leaflet said a major plus point was the recently modernized kitchen.
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Tourism is very important for the economy, particularl y in the south of the country. His work had a big influence on Picasso in particular.
be a good/typical/classic/obvious etc example:
The United Kingdom is a good example of a country that consists of several smaller states. Her case is a classic example of this kind of problem.
be a case in point used when saying that something is a very good and relevant
example of the kind of thing that you have just mentioned:
Many native English plants and animals are under threat. The red squirrel is a case in point. The government has consistently ignored basic human rights. A case in point is the recent killing of 10 political prisoners.
take/consider verb [transitive ] used when you are about to talk about a particular
situation that you want to show as an example:
Science has yet to answer some important questions. Take , for instance, (=consider the following example) the theory that the universe started with the 'big bang'. What came before the big bang? Many students are bored with their studies. Consider the case of Christina. She is a hard-working student who plans to go to college. Yet she says of her education, "It's not like I'm thinking a lot here."
STUDY NOTE: Grammar Take and conside r are always used at the start of a sentence.
by way of illustration a formal phrase , used especially when you are going to give a
long example that shows what you mean:
Revolutions often lead to dictatorships. By way of illustration , consider the events that followed the French Revolution.
be shown by used when giving an example which shows that what you are saying is
true:
The people who live there are quite rich. This is shown by the size of their houses. Metal tools were produced here for thousands of years, as is shown by weapons discovered in ancient tombs.
this is true of/this was true of used when giving an example which shows that what
you are saying is true:
Many writers have suffered from discrimination. This was true of Oscar Wilde, and also of André Gide.
(b) what you say when there are a lot of other examples of something
including preposition used when you want to give examples of the kinds of thing that
something includes:
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She has many interests, including opera and ballet. The company produces 340 drugs and cosmetic products, including penicillin, antibiotics and aspirins.
to name but a few used after examples of something, when saying that there are
many more that you could mention:
He wrote several famous books: '1984', 'Animal Farm', and 'The Road to Wigan Pier', to name but a few.
(c) to give something or someone as an example
give the example of something/give something as an example :
The writer gives the example of Johnny Saxon who, three years after winning the world boxing title, was charged with burglary. He gives as an example the island of Aru in southeast Indonesia, where the number of turtles has decreased dramatically.
cite verb [transitive] a formal word meaning to give something or someone an example:
She cites a survey last year, which showed that 84 percent of shoppers would be prepared to return containers to retailers if supermarkets set up a suitable system. Sendak cites Tolstoy as an example of an author who needs no illustrator.
6 Give the reason for something
Say why something has happened.
USEFUL PHRASES
Give reasons or results:
This would mean that many younger people would no longer have access to sports at school. As a result of this, we have seen a rise in profits.
Talk about the cause or effect:
A key factor is the level of education in a society. There may be serious repercussions in the future.
(a) problems
problem noun [countable] a situation that must be dealt with because it is causing
harm or inconvenience, or because it is stopping you from doing what you want to do:
Britain faced enormous economic and social problems after the war. Classroom discipline is a serious problem in many schools. A special force was set up to try to deal with the problem of gun crime. The sooner this problem is solved (=successfully dealt with), the better. The US government needs to do more to help tackle the problem (=deal with the problem) of global warming. It is in everyone's interest to address the problem (=find ways of solving the problem) of global poverty.
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find it difficult to tell their parents about their troubles. (=about the problems in their lives that are making them worried and unhappy)
complication noun [countable] an additional problem that makes a bad or difficult
situation even harder to deal with than it already is:
The project should finish in June, provided that there are no more complications. The surgeons knew it would be a difficult operation. A further complication (=another complication) was that the patient was in her 60s.
setback noun [countable] something that happens which stops you making progress or
which makes things worse than they were before:
The peace talks suffered a major setback when a bomb exploded outside the conference hotel. Despite some early setbacks , his campaign for the presidency was successful.
obstacle noun [countable] a difficult problem that stops someone or something making
progress or developing:
Criminal gangs are the biggest obstacle to democratic reform. The lack of child care is an enormous obstacle to women's participation in the work force. There are still some major technical obstacles to overcome (=to deal with).
pitfall noun [countable] a problem that is likely to happen when you are doing
something, especially one that is caused by a mistake that people often make:
The book shows you how to avoid the usual pitfalls when you are at an interview. The most common pitfall when treating the disease is to give too much treatment too late.
dilemma noun [countable] a situation in which it is very difficult to decide what to do,
because all the choices seem equally good or equally bad:
The doctors were faced with a moral dilemma. Should they carry out the operation, when there was such a small chance of success? Kennedy found himself in a dilemma over Cuba. On the one hand he did not want to risk a nuclear war, but on the other he could not allow the Russians to place nuclear weapons so close to American soil.
vicious circle noun [singular] a situation in which one problem causes another
problem, that then causes the first problem again, so that the whole process continues
to be repeated:
Some developing countries get caught in a vicious circle. They cannot afford to pay their debt repayments, and so the debts get even bigger. Stress at work can create a vicious circle. If you feel stressed and under pressure, you take longer to do your job, and because you take longer you become more stressed.
(b) small problems
solution noun [countable] a way of dealing with a problem:
Politicians have been trying to find a solution to the housing crisis for many years now.
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In this essay I shall consider the main causes of the problem of air pollution, and try to put forward (=suggest) some possible solutions. Unless scientists can come up with a solution (=think of a solution) quickly, we may soon run out of sources of energy. When people become too old to look after themselves, the ideal solution is for other members of their family to look after them. If you have difficulty sleeping, you need to identify the factors that are causing it and deal with them. That is the only effective long-term solution. There was no easy solution to Tom's problem. (=there was no easy way of dealing with it)
way out noun [countable] a way of dealing with a very serious situation which you have
become involved in:
The president's advisors are trying to find a way out of the crisis. At first there seemed to be no way out of her difficulties.
cure noun [countable] a way of completely getting rid of a problem, especially one that
affects many people in society, so that it does not happen again:
The only cure for unemployment is to make it easier for companies to invest and create new jobs. Unfortunately, there is no miracle cure for inflation. (=there is nothing that will immediately make the situation better) Prison is not a cure for all social ills. (=a cure for all social problems)
STUDY NOTE: Grammar Cure, remedy, prescription , and panacea are used metaphorically to talk about dealing with problems. Their original meanings relate to treating illnesses.
remedy noun [countable] a possible way of dealing with a problem, especially using
practical methods:
Expensive hi-tech remedies are often useless to poor countries. A number of remedies have been suggested, but so far none of them has shown itself to be effective.
prescription noun [countable] something that someone suggests as a way of dealing
with a problem:
Their prescription for dealing with poverty in Africa is to encourage more trade, instead of increasing aid. The socialists' main prescription for any social problem seems to be to pump more and more money into the system.
panacea noun [countable] a formal word, meaning something that people hope will
solve all their problems. You use panacea when you doubt that something can really
do this:
The law is not a universal panacea. (=it cannot solve all our problems) Some people think that free market capitalism is a panacea for all our ills. (=something that will solve all our problems) Furthermore, industrialization has rarely been the panacea for rural poverty that had been hoped.
quick fix noun [countable] a quick way of dealing with a problem, which usually only
works for a short time. You use quick fix especially when you think that people need to
find a more permanent solution:
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The trial generated a lot of interest in the media. Japan's economic success generated a huge demand for luxury goods.
trigger verb [transitive] to make something suddenly start to happen, especially a bad
situation such as a crisis or a war, or a medical condition:
The First World War was triggered by a series of events, beginning with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. Certain foods can trigger allergies. If oil prices keep rising, this could trigger an economic crisis.
(d) ways of saying that something is caused by another thing
be the result of/result from to happen because of something else that happened or
was done:
He said the success of his company was the result of hard work by all the staff. Greenhouse gases are the direct result of pollution from cars and factories. Meningitis results from an inflammation around the brain.
arise from verb [intransitive] if a problem or a serious situation arises from something,
it starts to happen because of it:
A number of problems arose from the break-up of the former Soviet Union. People are now much more aware of the dangers arising from asbestos dust.
stem from phrasal verb if something stems from another thing, it develops from it and
there is a direct link with it, even though this link is not always immediately obvious:
His emotional problems stemmed from an unhappy childhood.
(e) to be one of the things that cause something to happen
play a part if something plays a part, it is one of several things that causes something
to happen:
No one knows exactly what causes the disease. Genetic factors are thought to play a part. The rioting in the capital played a major part in the collapse of the government.
be a factor to be one of several things that affect something:
Public pressure against nuclear power was definitely a factor in their decision. The parent's influence is a major factor in a child's progress at school. (=a very important factor)
contribute to verb [intransitive] if something contributes to a situation, it is one of the
things that cause that situation to happen or become worse, but it is not one of the
main causes:
Methane gas is known to contribute to the greenhouse effect. Television often gets blamed for contributing to the decline of family life.
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influence verb [transitive] if something influences another thing, it has an effect on it,
although it does not cause it directly:
Weber demonstrated that culture and religion influenced economic development. Genetic factors may influence how the central nervous system reacts to nicotine.
(f) something that causes another thing to happen
cause noun [countable]:
Scientists are still trying to find the cause of the disease. Investigators have visited the scene to establish the cause of the accident. (=find out what the cause is) Almost certainly, the underlying cause of the war was the need for oil. (=the most important cause, even though it is not immediately obvious) Scarman was in no doubt that the root cause of the rioting was unemployment and poor living conditions. (=the most important cause, even though it is not immediately obvious)
1.7 Give additional information
Giving more than one reason, example or result is a clear way of building a strong
point.
USEFUL PHRASES Add additional information:
Not only were the staff unable to speak the local language, but they were also extremely unhelpful. Another good reason is the cost of this plan.
1.8 Give the consequences of an action
Say what might happen next.
USEFUL PHRASES
Give consequences:
If this is not possible, we will have to find an alternative date. We must take action now, otherwise it may be too late.
(a) words meaning effect
effect noun [uncountable and countable] a change caused by something:
She was one of the first scientists to study the effects of radiation on the human body. At first, the treatment seemed to have no effect. Building hundreds of new homes is likely to have an adverse effect on the environment. (=a bad effect) The food we eat has a significant effect upon our mental ability. (=an important and noticeable effect) The decision could have far-reaching effects. (=on a lot of things or people)
impact noun [uncountable and countable] the effect that something has, especially a
big and permanent effect that happens as a result of something important:
