MEMORANDUM EDUCACION, Guías, Proyectos, Investigaciones de Psicología Educacional

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PSYCHOLOGY OF

EDUCATION AND

INSTRUCTION

Classroom activities

Paloma Goizueta Pourthé

INDEX

• UNIT 1 …..……………………………………………………………………………………….
• Introductory questions ………………………………………………………………….…….….
• Instruction ……………………………………………………………………………………….
• Learning ………………………………………………………………………..…………….….
• History ……………………………………………………………………….……….………….
• Three metaphors of learning ……………………………………………………………….…….
• Deep learning and Machine learning …………………………………………………………….
• How to help people learn ………………………………………………………..……………….
• UNIT 2 ……………………………………………………………………………….……….….
• Declarative learning ………………………………………………………….………………….
• Procedural learning ……..……………………………………………………………………….
• Questions to be answered ..………………………………………………..…………………….
• UNIT 3 …………………………………..……………………………………………………….
• Video on the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner) …….………….…………..
• Individual interest (subject and topic level) .……………………..…………………………….
• Pygmaliion effect ..……………………………………………..……………………………….
• Class activity ……………………………………………..………………………………….
• Motivation goal orientation …………………………………..…..……………………………..
• UNIT 4…………………………….……………………..…………………….…………………
• Questions to be answered …..………….………………………………..………………………
• REFERENCES ………………………………………………..……………………………….

• Which were the main conclusions that could be drawn from the case of Victor in relation to

education?

Some of the most useful insights that the case of victor and doctor itard's work provided to

educational psychology are:Some of the most relevant conclusions made tha

1. Not only formal instruction but society is vital for human development. Dr. Itard held that the moral

superiority said to be natural to man is only the result of civilization.

2. People learn to satisfy their needs from the most isolated savage to the most highly civilized man; there

exists a constant relation between ideas and needs.

3. Instructional programs should be based on science. Educational psychology should be illuminated by the

light of modem medicine and natural sciences.

4. Instructional programs ought to take into account and adapt to the individual characteristics of each

student. "by detecting the organic and intellectual peculiarities of each individual.

• What do you think is Mayer’s perspective on Educational Psychology?

The book is based on a learner-centered approach in which the learner is at the bean of all learning.

The first goal is to understand the cognitive processes and knowledge used by learners in carrying out acade-

mic tasks. Questions such as what are the cognitive processes that a skilled reader engages in while reading a

textbook lesson should be asked and solved to clarify the important of the learning aspects.

The second goal is to understand how to help students develop the cognitive processes used by

skilled practitioners to perform academic tasks.

Instruction

• What do you think the author means with this statement?
• Educational Psychology stands between instruction and learning

Educational psychology is linked to both psychology and instruction. It combines technics of

research and knowledge from psychology (such as useful principles as self-efficacy, motivation or

knowledge about memory, attention...) with topics with education such as the role of the instructor and its

manipulation of knowledge, the evaluation of the changes in the learner, or the instructional environment is

are from great educational importance. It seeks to create conditions in which individuals can achieve deep

understanding.

• Provide a definition for the following terms: instruction, learning environments, learners’

knowledge

-Instruction;

By instruction it is understood the manipulations of the content provided by the teacher and the

changes in knowledge created in the learner. Instruction refers to the teacher's construction of environments

for the student where such environments are intended to foster changes in the learner's knowledge.

Gagne (1974) defines instruction as "the arrangement of external events to activate and support the internal

processes of learning”. Thus, the definition ol instruction has two main components:

1. Instruction is something the teacher does.
2. The goal of instruction is to promote learning in the student.

This definition of instruction is broad enough to include lectures, discussions, educational games,

textbooks, research projeccs, and Web-based presentations.

-Learning environments;

The contexts and situations in which students will be more prom to foster changes in previous

knowledge acquiring new one in an efficient way.

-Learners’ knowledge;

Background knowledge the student already has and that will be useful for the instructor to adapt the methods

the techniques and the content to teach to this student.

History

• What is Thorndike’s view of Educational Psychology?

In his book, the principles of teaching based on Psychology, Thorndike proclaimed that the

efficiency of any profession depends in large measure upon the degree to which it becomes scientific. He

argued that the profession of teaching will improve ( 1 ) in proportion as its members direct their work by lhe

scientific spirit and methods, that is by honest, open-minded consideration of facts, by freedom from

superstitions, fancies, and um·erified guesses. and (2) in proponion as the leaders in education direct their

choices of methods by the results of scientific investigation rather than general opinion.

• What is William James’ view of Educational Psychology? Explain the two obstacles to apply

psychology to education, according to James.

William James believed that also psychology might be valuable in the educational field, it could not

be considered as the core answer to satisfy its demands; its investigations and implications might not be so

realistic or applicable to real environments.

James acknowledged two obstacles blocking the application of psychology lO education. First,

James correctly observed that the psychology of the late 1800s lacked a sufficient database, and that much

work needed to be done to test psychological theories. Second, James warned that psychological research

results and theories would not necessarily translate directly into prescriptions for classroom practice.

• Why do you think educational psychology “was in serious trouble by the mid-1900s”?

Educators and psychologists became pessimistic concerning whether educational psychology would

be able to assume its role as the guiding science of education. Psychologists were more concerned with

studying the learning of laboratory animals' behavior or studying very concrete aspects of memory not easily

applicable.

Educators were more focused on practical issues, such as whether one method was better than

another for teaching a given skill while failing to base educational decisions on a coherent theory of how

students learn.

• Relate the pessimism of phase 2 to the reasons of the decline of educational psychology

mentioned by Grinder.

Grinder (1989) identified three reasons for the decline of educational psychology in the middle of the 1900s:

Withdrawal: Educational psychologists lost interest in contributing to educational policy.

Fractionation: Educational psychologists failed to achieve a coherent theoretical perspective.

Irrelevance: Educational psychologists focused on research issues far removed from the problems of

schooling.

This factors contributed to the disciplines of psychology and education getting disconnected from eachother.

Three metaphors of learning

• Match the statements in part a) to the statements in part b)
• Find an example for each of the metaphors of learning.

LEARNING AS RESPONSE STRENGTHENING

The first metaphor to gain broad acceptance in psychology is learning as response strengthening

based largely on research on laboratory animals. According to this view, learning is a mechanical process in

which successful responses to a given situation are automatically strengthened and unsuccessful responses to

the situation are weakened.

This approach suggests educational practice in which the teacher creates situations that require short

responses, the learner gives a response, and the teacher provides the appropriate reward or punishment.

For example, in reading, a to-be-strengthened S-R association may be between the printed word

"cat' and its corresponding sound.

LEARNING AS KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

The second metaphor, learning as knowledge acquisition, developed during the 1 960s and 1 970s as

research shifted from studying animal learning in laboratory settings to studying human learning in

laboratory settings.

According to this view, learning occurs when information is transferred from a more knowledgeable

person (such as a teacher) to a less knowledgeable person (such as a student). In this way, learning is like

filling a void, that is, like pouring information into a student's memory. Within this metaphor, the learner

becomes a processor of information and the teacher becomes a dispenser of information. Information is a

commodity the teacher gives to the student.

Here, the goal of instruction is to increase the amount of knowledge in the learner's memory

For example, the teacher may ask students to read a section in their science textbooks on how

electricity flows in a circuit, and then test them on the material.

Deep networks learn from data in the same way that newborns experience the world,

starting little information and gradually earning the skills needed to operate in different situations.

Learning algorithms obtain information from raw data and used to create knowledge.

Nowadays, computers can perform with better efficacy and much more quickly some of the

jobs for which years ago several experts need to work on for several amounts of time.

None of the revolutions experienced in human history may compare to the machine

learning revolution if we consider that somewhere shortly they will be able to carry out 80% of the

western societies' jobs.

Even though we tend to underestimate artificial intelligence, they are capable of organizing

their knowledge, which underlies understanding, and understanding leads to wisdom. Their

growth, unlike other revolutions, is exponential and we don't know to what extent their learning

abilities will be capable of.

How to help people learn

• Explain with detail the relationship between the cognitive processes involved in meaningful

learning and the three kinds of learning outcomes.

Selecting involves focusing attention on the relevant pieces of the presented information and

transferring them from sensory memory to working memory. In paying attention to some of the information

that enters through eyes and ears a selection of some pieces of information for further processing in working

memory is done. It is about picking the relevant out of the irrelevant content.

Organizing involves constructing internal connections among the incoming pieces of information in

working emmory. In constructing these internal connections, the learner organizes the selected information

into a coherent whole. The learners carries out selective combination and defines it as combining selectively

encoded information such a way as to form an integrated internally connected whole.

Integrating involves constructing external connection between the newly organized knowledge in

working memory and existing relevant knowledge that the learner retrieves from long-term memory. This

process involves connecting the organized information to tother familiar knowledge structures already in

memory. It is a selective comparison; relating newly acquired to old knowledge so as to form an externally

connected whole.

• Three kinds of cognitive load and consequences for instruction:

Intrinsic cognitive load: refers to the amount of cognitive processing required to comprehend the to-

be-learned material and depends on its conceptual complexity. Intrinsic load is reflected in the cognitive

process of selecting relevant elements and relations for funher processing. It is defined in terms of

interactivity: Material with high element interactivity has many elements that interact one another (such as an

explanation of how a complex system works) and requires more cognitive capacity, whereas material with

low element interactivity consists of elements that can be learned independently (such as the definitions of a

collection of words) and requires less cognitive capacity. Intrinsic cognitive load cannot be eliminated, but it

can be managed through effective instruction.

Extraneous cognitive load: refers to the amount of cognitive capacity used for cognitive processing

that is not relevant to the goals of instruction. Extraneous load occurs when a lesson is poorly designed, such

as when instruction is disorganized or contains a lot ofextraneous material. Extraneous cognitive load can be

reduced through effective instructional design-such as reducing the amount of extraneous information. Using

headings that signal the organization of the material, and placing pictures near the words that describe them

Germane cognitive load: occurs when learners engage in deep cognitive processing of the to-be-

learned material through the cognitive processes of organizing and integrating. Germane cognitive

processing can be fostered by asking the learner to engage in activities such as self-explaining or by present

ing the material in

a friendly, conversational style.

Procedural learning

• Design a simple learning situation (focused on procedural learning) and use some of the

techniques and principles we have just studied. Briefly describe the learning situation and justify

why and how you use specific techniques and principles

I will discuss a session designed to provide basic tools related to emotional and stress management

through mindfulness techniques. I would use a worked example, following the audio-meditation with the

instructor providing an example and showing how the breathing technique should be. I would also provide

feedback for helping the ones that are feeling loss while meditating.

Questions to be answered

• Indicate the main findings regarding effective strategies in Learning, and those frequently used

but not so effective.

The article authors Bjork, Dunlosky and Kornell (2013) conclude with that we hold a lot of faulty thoughts

about how we learn the best, and that these attitudes also are present in the wider society, weakening many

learning processes. Some examples:

Most students prefer “blocked practice” (studying one subject matter thoroughly before moving over to new

themes) over “interleaved practice” (mixing subject matters along the learning process), even though the

second option has proven to be more effective. They also do not understand the powerful effect of choosing

the correct spacing technique can have for long-term learning and transfer.

Feeling one has finished learning prematurely is another common mistake. They also put too much emphasis

on the effect of simply re-reading, from which research has found a moderate effect on learning.

Nor do they understand the usefulness of testing the level of understanding, even though such measuring can

guide the following learning success: tests are underused in educational settings, they can facilitate further

learning.

• Explain some of the assumptions and illusions which can impair learning and self-regulation.

Students usually assume that they will automatically use the best strategies by following their

intuition because of their lack of formal training in educational techniques.

Plus, when they make use of a strategy at a high rate, they usually assume that there exist good

reasons for choosing it over others, showing resistance to change. Therefore, many students will assume

that massive processing practice is superior to spacing methods, even though the empirical evidence tells

us the contrary.

We are also influenced by some thought pattern-illusions that function as barriers of learning and

self-regulation, such as this metacognitive one: experiencing that the studying process happens at ease

makes us believe that the chosen strategy is better than a during, high-effort one.

• Define the concept Desirable Difficulties in Learning and the educational implications.

A desirable difficulty is a learning task that requires a substantial but desirable amount of effort,

thereby improving long-term performance. As the name suggests, desirable difficulties should be both

desirable and difficult. While difficult tasks might slow down learning initially, the long term benefits are

greater than with easy tasks. However, to be desirable, the tasks must also be accomplishable.Many tasks

give the illusion of learning because they are too easy. For example, re-reading notes or a textbook is a

common learning tactic that has been proven to be less beneficial than using flashcards. A student will feel

like he or she is learning when re-reading, but this is partly since the words are more familiar rather than

that the material is being processed and learned. Flashcards, on the other hand, require the student to

actively recall the information. This is a desirable difficulty because it requires more effort and forces the

student to do more complex processing. At first, learning with desirable difficulties may take longer and

the student may not feel as confident, but over time knowledge will be retained better.

UNIT 3

Individual interest (subject and topic level)

• Relation between interest and achievement (Schiefele, Krapp & Winteler, 1992). School subject

hypothesis.

The "School subject hypothesis" declares that academic performance is dependent on the student's

interest in the subject.

To test this notion, Schiefele, Krapp & Winteler (1992) investigated studies that included the

variables self-rated interest and the achievement of the students, to search for correlations that may show

some useful insights.

They found similar values for all the subjects studied: a moderate and persistent correlation

around r = .30 proving a statistical relationship between the two variables (interest and achievement).

However, we can not infer causality because of the nature of the design. Correlations don't mean causation

and it could be both the case that, contrary as expected, students have more interest in those subjects that

master or master those subjects for which they have more interest.

• Learning a topic that interests students vs. not (Schiefele, 1992) Lesson topic hypothesis: Explain

the manipulation for this experiment, main goals and results.

Schiefele (1992) asked students to study unknown material, rate their principal interest in the topic

presented, and to what degree they were caught up in the acquiring phase. Indicating deeper learning in the

high-interest group, they scored much better on deep questions (not on surface questions), and there was a

strong connection between reported interest and activation/elaboration when learning ( r = .60).

Pygmalion effect

• Summarize the pygmalion effect experiment.

Rosenthal’s experiment the school director presented all the subjects with a Cambridge intelligence

test. He told the teachers that the test was able to detect “late bloomers”; children with great potential, that

had not yet matured enough to manifest it. He then gave to each teacher the results of this supposed

intelligence test, by indicating the names of those students that were late bloomers. In reality, the names were

chosen at random. However, the experiment showed that the teacher’s positive expectations made them treat

this group a little differently, and surprisingly, that the group of children actually outperformed the non-late

bloomers group at the end of the year, even though children never knew that they were part or not of this

special group.

• Which conclusions could we extract from the video in relation to expectations & sense of self-

efficacy?

The expectations of the teacher toward those children with great potential made their relationship

different. Probably, without direct intentionality, instructors treated them differently. Clearly, this modified

some aspect of those groups of children. By noting that high expectations held on them their perception of

their own abilities might have increased (their self-efficacy beliefs) leading into higher motivation, effort,

confidence and at the end performance results.

• Reflect on the role of expectations (from teachers, our own) in school learning.

All instructors should be aware of that effect. In an instructional environment, both teachers and

students have an active role, and the relationship that is build up between them can have a huge impact on

the learner outcome. The instructors must seek to avoid personal preferences even though it might be

difficult because at the end of the day it is impossible to have the same affinity with all students. However, to

the extend that they can, they should treat all the learners optimism convying the message that they can

overcome themselves and never understimating their abilities to get better, always encouraging them to push

harder.

Motivation goal orientation (Mastery and performance goals ( Harackiewicz et al., 2002)

• According to the study of these authors, explain the relationship that they found among the

variables:

• Mastery goals, performance goals, interest enjoyment, final grade in course.

Harackiewicz et all. (2002) asked college students to complete some questionnaires in which their

goal orientation as well as related factors were evaluated. Furthermore, information concerning their high

school grades and SAT scores was collected. All of the students participated in an Introductory course in

freshman year and graduated later with a major in psychology.

They found that mastery goals were positively related to student ́s level of interest and enjoyment of

class (they were also related to taking more courses and majoring) but mastery goals were not positively

related to grades in the course.

Students who adopted mastery goals in their initial course-work in psychology were more likely to

enjoy lectures, express interest in psychology, enroll in psychology courses, and ultimately declare a major in

psychology.

Students who adopted performance-approach goals for their initial course work in psychology

received higher grades in the introductory course and higher grades in additional psychology courses taken

over their academic careers.

Both, mastery goal and performance-approach-goals appear to be related to academic motivation,

although they are related to different aspects of academic motivation.

As a conclusion, the authors come to the idea that the optimal goal orientation is a multiple goal

perspective because mastery and performance-approach goals have complementary positive effects.

UNIT 4

Unit four is a practical unit in which several strategies and recommendations of techniques are

presented (always scientifically based and applied to the instructional design). For example, acognitive

apprenticeship approach is presented. And also literature about collaborative methods, reciprocal learning,

modeling, coaching or scaffolding.It discusses how the concepts can be applied taking into account practical

settings and the role of social and cultural influences.

• What do we mean with cognitive apprenticeship?

Cognitive apprenticeship is a system by which a person learning a craft or trade is instructed

by a master for a set time under set condition

• Indicate the difference with forms of traditional apprenticeship.

Traditional approaches to learning usually are carried out in formal settings. The instructor has a

knowledge that provides to the learner, usually more abstract content. However, cognitive apprenticeship has

a more practical approach and deals with more related to real life situations topics in more informal

situations in which the instructor becomes more of a coach than a teacher.

• Explain the methods in cognitive apprenticeship and provide an example:
• Modeling: instructor performs the task, showing step by step how it should be done, so students follow the

example of the teacher.

• Coaching. it is a way of providing support and advice to the students during the process of learning.
• Scaffolding. the teacher or instructor provides help in the areas or parts of a task in which the student lacks

ability by now, the professor step by step removes this help until the student is able to do it well alone.

• Are cooperative learning methods effective in improving student achievement? Provide the

evidence.

Slavin and Karweit carried out an experiment in which they compared two groups of individuals;

one using the method of cooperative learning and the other just used other learning techniques. The condition

in which individuals worked in groups and cooperated obtained better results and learned more efficiently.

Similar results were found in the study performed during 2005 by Borman, Slavin et al. in which

they saw more learning in the cooperative technique in which there was not competition between individuals

but instead a need for cooperation. Why does cooperative learning affect student achievement? Provide the

reasons.