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Reyes Espert

UNIVERSITAT DE VALENCIA | GROUP AR

Class activities

EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Index

• Unit 1. Foundations of Educational and Instructional Psychology
  • Wild boy.
  • Definitions and overview.
  • Three approaches to research on learning and instruction.
  • Three roads for Psychology in Education.
• Unit 2. Acquiring and representing knowledge: The transfer of learning.
  • The transfer of learning.....................................................................................................
  • Elements that promote initial learning
  • Other factors that influence transfer
  • Learning as transfer from previous experiences
  • Transfer between school and everyday life
• Unit 3. Motivation and interactive processes in educational settings........................................
  • Introduction
  • Motivation based on interest
  • Motivation based on self-efficacy
  • Motivation based on attributions
  • Motivation based on goal-orientation
• Unit 4. Learning and instructional design: cognitive and social features of instruction
  • Introduction
  • Collaboration methods: cooperative learning
  • Modeling methods
  • Personalization methods.................................................................................................

method, and a branch of psychology is that there’s a part of the psychology focused on education.

Educational psychology investigates the instructor’s manipulation of the environment. How the instructor (teacher, researcher…) adapts the environment in order to educate the learner.

Educational psychology investigates resulting changes in the learners’ knowledge. Studies the new things that the learner has learned.

Instruction:

What do you think the author means with this statement :

Educational Psychology stands between instruction and learning. That educational psychology is interested not only in instruction or learning, but both of them, and the interaction among them.

Provide a definition for the following terms: instruction, learning environments, learners’ knowledge.

Instruction. The arrangement of external events to activate and support the internal processes of learning.

Learning environments. The situation, the external events, in which learning takes place.

Learner’s knowledge. The previous knowledge that the learner has already got prior to the instruction.

List & explain the main components in a definition of instruction, according to Mayer.

• Instruction. Is something the teacher does.
• The goal of instruction. To promote learning in student.

Learning: Explain with your own words the following statements. Try using your background knowledge!

Learning is long-term. This means that something you have learned stays for a long time, you don´t forget it after a short period of time.

Learning involves a cognitive change that is reflected in a behavioral change. That learning requires a change from not knowing to knowing something. If the learner doesn´t suffer this change, then there’s no learning.

Learning depends on the experience of the learner. Learning does not depend on what is done to the learner, but on how the learner interprets what has happened.

What is the approach to “what is learned” taken by the author of this book?

He takes a cognitive approach by defining “what is learned” as a cognitive change.

Which is the connection between teaching and learning?

Both involve the fostering of change within the learner.

According to Dewey (1938), what could be called a mis-educative experience?

An experience that has the effect of arresting or distorting the growth of further experiences.

Explain with your own words the following statement:

“All learning involves connecting new information to existing knowledge. It is crucial to help students develop knowledge structures that can support the acquisition of useful new information”.

Learning is the connection between the new information you acquire and the information you previously had stored. It is useful that students develop knowledge structures to help them acquire new information.

3. Three approaches to research on learning and instruction.

Complete the following table with a brief description based on the explanations in the chapter

• Why do you think the author claims the following:

“Although the cognitive approach offers a deeper picture of how teaching affects learning than does the behaviorist approach, the picture is still not complete”

Because there are still some aspects of learning that cognitive approach has not explained.

4. Three roads for Psychology in Education.

Perform the task proposed by Mayer at the beginning of the section. Justify your selection.

Psychologists should study how people learn and develop in real educational situations, basing their research on the challenges of educators; educators should base their instructional decisions on psychological theories of how students learn and develop.

Behaviorist approach Cognitive approach Contextual approach

FOCUS Method A better than B?

Method-mental process-learning outcome

Use of instructional methods in real context

VARIABLES Observable manipulation and behavior

Internal cognitive processes and learning outcomes

Context: students, classroom, school and educational system RESULTS Method A is better than method B

Individual differences in cognitive processing

Effects of instructional methods in real settings

Unit 2. Acquiring and representing knowledge: The transfer of

learning.

1. The transfer of learning

Provide a definition for transfer. Transfer is the ability to extend what has been learned in one context into another.

Why do you think promoting the transfer of learning is a critical element in educational psychology? Because the transfer of learning is more effective than the fact of learning a single task at a time.

How do these words relate to each other?: performance in particular tasks, remembering, learning, and transfer. The learning experience can look equivalent when you test the performance in a particular task, like remembering, but can look quite different when test of transfer are used.

What does the theory of formal discipline predict for learning and transfer? This theory predicts that learning on difficult subjects, like Latin, has broad-based effects. This implies a strong influence of the transfer.

What did other group of theories mean by the similarity between conditions of learning and conditions of transfer? That transfer is facilitated when some of the conditions where you have learned are identical or similar to those encountered on the transfer context.

What do modern theories of transfer take into account? Modern theories take into account the learner’s characteristics, maintaining the emphasis on practice, but specifying the kind of practice.

Summarize the work conducted by Ericsson and colleagues. Ericsson worked with a college student in remembering the maximum capacity of digits in a series. After practicing the student passed from remembering 7 to more than 70 digits. When he passed to letters he came again to remembering only 7.

What does this experiment show in relation to the transfer of learning and conditions that facilitate this transfer? That the more specific the task you’re learning is, the harder it will be to transfer this knowledge, even if the conditions are pretty similar.

2. Elements that promote initial learning

What was the main hypothesis in the LOGO studies? That students who learned LOGO would transfer this knowledge to other areas that require thinking and problem solving.

What was the main result in relation to transfer? First they found no evidence that learning LOGO facilitated transference, but after more detailed revision, they found that initial learning affects transfer.

How can this result be interpreted? (Initial learning-transfer) That transfer to related tasks is affected by the initial learning of the subject.

What is the main advantage for those who learn with understanding? Those who learn with understanding instead of memorizing will found more facilities in resolving related tasks.

What does the throwing darts example show us about learning with understanding and transfer? Please also briefly explain the experimental situation. The subjects had to throw darts to a target that was underwater. One group was taught about refraction of water so that they understood why they failed, while the other group was not taught anything. When the target was 12 inches under water both groups did equally, but when it was only 4 inches under the group that was taught about refraction performed much better.

This experiment shows us that learning with understanding facilitates transfer, because even if you cannot see the results in the first task (like when the target was 12 inches under water), on the next task you can apply the principles you have understood and it will be easier.

Please explain: “The development of expertise occurs only with major investments of time” Becoming an expert on something requires a lot of time of learning because in order to become an expert you have to learn a lot of information related to this camp and the possible consequences of your actions.

“Amount of time it takes to learn material is roughly proportional to amount of material being learned”. Learning a huge amount of information requires a lot of time of practice.

According to the text, why would learning quickly hinder learning and transfer? Because students learn only isolated sets of facts that are not organized and connected, or are introduced to organizing principles that they cannot grasp because they lack specific knowledge to make them meaningful.

Which conditions did Schwartz et al. compared and what can we conclude from this study? One group read and summarized a text on the topic and then listened to a lecture designed to help them organize their knowledge and learn with understanding. The second group compared data sets from schema experiments on memory and then listened to the same lecture as the first group. The third group had the same data sets as the second, but less time, and they didn’t listen to the lecture.

We can conclude that listening to the lecture was necessary because it helped them to understand the topic.

What does “deliberate practice” stand for? Is the active monitoring of one’s learning experiences. This means to seek the feedback of the learner’s performance.

Which type of feedback would be more effective for learning& transfer? Learners need feedback about the state of the student’s understanding. They need to know how, where and when to use the knowledge they are learning.

How can the use of “contrasting cases” promote metacognitive knowledge? Contrasting cases can help students notice features that previously escaped their attention and learn which features are relevant or irrelevant to a particular concept.

4. Learning as transfer from previous experiences

Principle: “All learning involves transfer from previous experiences”. Explain the implications for practice! Students may have relevant knowledge that is not activated. The information may be misinterpreted by the student because of the previous knowledge he had. Students may have difficulty with particular school teaching practices that conflict with practices in their community.

How can the connection between everyday life knowledge and school knowledge be done? By tapping and building on previous knowledge the children had.

Explain the meaning of: “One’s existing knowledge can also make it difficult to learn new information”. Because you have some knowledge that may be contradictory to what you’re trying to learn.

What do the studies on students’ prior knowledge on biology or mathematics show us about the role of existing knowledge in learning? Prior knowledge may lead to misconceptions. Even if the student acquires the new knowledge, it may not be enough because he may still believe as true the previous concepts even if probed to be wrong (like in the case of the biology students).

How could instruction be organized in order to avoid misconceptions? The teacher has to be aware of the different cultural backgrounds of the students.

What does the Eating Pie example show us about prior knowledge and cultural interference with learning? That culture and previous knowledge may interfere with learning because it may distract the student from the point the teacher wants to explain.

5. Transfer between school and everyday life

Explain the similarities and differences between school and other environments. In other environments, work group and collaboration is very important, even necessary, to accomplish your goals, while in school environment you can pass just by yourself. Another difference is that while in school all the problems are solved “mentally”, in real life you can access and use a lot of tools. And a third difference is that in school is very important the abstract reasoning, while in other environments is more important the contextualized reasoning.

Unit 3. Motivation and interactive processes in educational settings

1. Introduction

The reasons why people are motivated. Provide a brief definition for each of them:

• Motivation based on interest. Whether a person is interested in what he/she is going to learn or not. They work better when they think what they are doing is important.
• Motivation based on self-efficacy. If the person thinks is competent to do a task. When they think they are capable of doing well, they work harder.
• Motivation based on attribution. Motivation can be affected by whether the person attributes his failures or his successes to his effort or to other causes. If success or failure is attributed to oneself, the student will work harder.
• Motivation based on achievement goals. When the goal of the student is to understand the material, he will work hard. Is there a relation between motivation, learning by understanding and transfer? There is a direct relation. The higher there is the motivation to learn, the better the learning by understanding, and subsequently, the better transfer.

Is the focus of Mayers’ conception of Motivation intrinsic or extrinsic? Is focused in intrinsic motivation.

What do cognitive theories of motivation emphasize, in contrast to drive theories? Cognitive theories emphasize decision making and the interpretation of the environment.

2. Motivation based on interest

Why would interest-based learning facilitate deeper learning? Because interest causes the student to pay more attention and learn in an active way.

What is the main argument of those defending an approach to learning based on effort? That is absurd to think will get more intellectual when he goes to a matter unwillingly.

What do you agree with most and why? I completely agree with Dewey’s point of view. I’ve experienced this problem in my school years. Those subjects in which I was more interested always needed less time of studying and I got better grades than in those that I disliked.

Could we infer a causal relation between interest and achievement based on these results? Why? No. We cannot tell whether achievement is caused by interest, or whether interest is caused by achievement.

What is the purpose of the seductive details manipulations? Its main purpose is to add interesting information, but irrelevant, to the learning material in order to facilitate learning.

What is the main conclusion that can be extracted from the research reported in the chapter? That coherent materials shoul be selected to be learned in order to work on cognitive interest.

3. Motivation based on self-efficacy

Self-efficacy vs. Self-concept: what is the main difference between them? Self-efficacy is focused on the capabilities in a given domain, whilst self-concept is a general term about the capabilities across domains.

Succes experience (reasons) Failure experience (reasons) I am quite smart (internal, stable, uncontrollable)

The exam was really difficult (external, unstable, uncontrollable) I studied hard (internal, unstable, controllable)

I didn’t studied at all (internal, unstable, controllable) I needed to pass in order to get the scholarship (external, stable, uncontrollable)

I was really nervous (internal, stable, controllable)

5. Motivation based on goal-orientation

Performance goals and achievement: which type of relation is there? Performance-approach goals are positively related to performance.

Problems with performance goals (Midgley, Kaplan & Middleton, 2001) Explain

• (what) How we measure achievement. If achievement is measured by test scores, then students with performance-approach goals may be memorizing material in order to do well at the expense of long-term retention and understanfig.
• (who) Type of students. Performance-approach goals are more helpful for boys, for older students, and students in competitive learning environments.
• (How) avoiding challenge and relying on cheating. Performance-approach goals may lead to self-handicapping in which students avoid new and challenging learning experiences, avoid cooperating with peers, and rely on cheating.

According to the study of these authors (Harackiewicz et al., 2002), explain the relationship that they found among the variables: Mastery goals, performance goals, interest enjoyment, and final grade in course. Mastery goals predict interest and enjoyment, while performance goals predict the final grade in the course.

Unit 4. Learning and instructional design: cognitive and social

features of instruction

1. Introduction

Role of cultural context in learning: what can we conclude from the studies of Brazilian street vendors? That the application of knowledge depends on the context.

Classic and situated view of learning: define each of these views and their implications. According to the classic view of learning, students abstract a general procedure from instruction and apply it across a wide variety of problems. This view implies that people will use a school- taught procedure to solve their everyday problems. The situated view of learning is that students acquire a specific procedure based on the context in which it was encountered and are able to use it mainly within that context.

Internalization: skilled to less-skilled. Clarify the internalization process. The process of internalization is the internal reconstruction of an external process.

Zone of proximal development. Define. Implications for instruction? The zone of proximal development is the difference between the child’s current level of performance and the level of performance that the child could attain with expert guidance.

Role of teacher: teaching as assisted performance. Meaning? The role of a teacher is as someone who provides assistance to students engaged in a cognitive task.

What do we mean with cognitive apprenticeship? Cognitive apprenticeship consists on learning the processes that experts use to handle complex tasks.

Indicate the difference with forms of traditional apprenticeship. Cognitive apprenticeship takes place in a formal instructional setting (like a class), while traditional apprenticeship takes place in the context of everyday life. Cognitive apprenticeship emphasizes learning cognitive skills, whereas traditional apprenticeship tends to emphasize physical practical skills.

Explain the methods in cognitive apprenticeship:

• Modeling. Teacher describes the cognitive processes while performing a task.
• Coaching. The teacher provides support to the students while they are performing tasks.
• Scaffolding. The teacher helps the students preform parts of a task that they can’t perform unaided.

2. Collaboration methods: cooperative learning

According to Slavin, how can we define cooperative learning? A grupo of up to six students who differ in ability work together to as a group on an academic task. They work together and are evaluated as a team.

Explain the version of cooperative learning developed by Slavin and colleagues: Student Teams Achievement Divisions. (STAD) The class is divided into groups of four to six members with demographics that are equivalent to those of the general classroom. In each lesson the teacher introduces the material through lecture and discussion, and then the students study in