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Unit 2. Verbal and Nominal Inflections
All verbs in all languages select at least one argument according to the VPISH (VP Internal Subject Hypothesis), so it would be wrong to say that intransitive verbs select no argument. This happens at deep structure.
Proof for VPISH
Logical arguments are semantic and each transitive and finite verb’s IP will assign nominative case to the subject under the SPEC of VP at SS as it will move to the SPEC of IP.
- If we believe in the VPISH we can say that it is universal to all languages.
- If we apply X’ parameters, we will understand what is occurring at SS and at DS.
What does reduced morphology look like?
In linguistics we observe what is universal and unique about languages.
- I will be boring and repetitive Voy a ser (seré) aburrida y repetitive.
- I know I am being “ “ “ Sé que estoy siendo,
- I know you might be bored by this Sé que quizás os aburra
- I know that this can be boring Sé que puede ser aburrido.
But this is not true as the information is located syntactically in other parts of the sentence. In fact, we should be observing how the two language are different.
PRO DROP PARAMETER
Highly inflected languages do not need an overt subject. The reason behind it is that the IP projection includes the agreement of person, number and tense. In English, the IP refers to tense and agreement. It is tied to the EPP and VPISH. At DS all verbs generate internal arguments in both finite and non finite verbs. There is no need to indicate the subject as it is within the verb.
PROJECTION PRINCIPLE
One of the most fundamental properties of human language is its hierarchical organization.
- Functional projections CP, IP, DP
- Lexical projections VP, NP, PP, AP, ADVP
EPP (Extended Projection Principle)
Since all verbs must have a meaningful subject, the SPEC of IP is never empty as it requites an overt subject (dummy it or there) and it is not a pro drop language. The subject position must be occupied.
Pronouns should appear at the head of DP as there is nothing that can go before them and
HEAD MOVEMENT CONSTRAINT
Movements are up and leftwards. Lexical heads cannot pass other lexical heads.
VERBS
- Raising verbs, verbs only raise where they are finite and these raise to inflection. They are highly functional in English syntax and can replace many morphological markers as we have seen in Spanish. - Often need other lexical verbs full of meaning. - Sometimes defective or fossilized. - Can form contractions. - Can occur directly at IP head. - Used as operators to negate or interrogate. - Have an established order in verb series.
Categories
- Modals – mixed modals (SPEC of IP) they don’t have inf. and are always followed by bare infinitive. They are defective and don’t have inflectional markers. The can occur at IP head and also raise to CP. They can contract with a pronoun or negation. They are followed by bare infinitive and never co occur with dummy do. Mixed modals are used to, ought to, dare to, needn’t, would rather…
- Auxiliaries, they are not defective and agree in tense, number and person. The occur at AuxP and raise to IP to get tense. They need a lexical verb to acquire full meaning and can be topicalized to C head. ■ Perfective have – he has gone, he had gone ■ Possessive have – I have four children, we have got a home ■ Passive be – This is seen on page one, I was born ■ Progressive be – I am sleeping, I was sleeping
- Dummy and emphatic do, we can find them in all types of sentences. ■ ‘Do Operator’ ■ Never co occurs with other operators ■ Followed by bare infinitive ■ Takes negative contraction ■ Can invert to C head ■ Gives negation and needed in them ■ When there is a tense change ■ Lexical verbs can’t be negated without it.
- Main verb be – raising verbs (seem, happen)
- Lexical verbs, go first in declaratives and imperatives. In these cases, inflection lowers to the lexical verb. They can occur after a raising verb in negatives and questions.
- Non-lexical verbs are highly functional: taking tense markers or not, raising to I (or starting directly there), Raising to C, providing emphasis, operating as negations and questions
- Non finite verbs, they don’t have tense. To infinitive (to at IP head), Bare infinitive (at VP head) and present/past participles (-ing or –en). They combine
Be 1 Aux VP T 1 V’ V DP Writing a letter
Her writing amazes me – Non-finite IP
IP Spec/DP 1 I’ D’ I t1VP D IP2 t 2 V’ I’ V DP I VP amaze me -ing writing +pre 2
Key concepts:
- What is the difference between finite and non finite verbs?
- Do non finites have tense? No
- Which verb goes first in a verb series? Finite
- Do all verbs combine in the same way? No
- Do all verbs take inflectional movement in the same direction? No
- Do non finites have full semantic meaning? Usually
Do not confuse absence of inflection with 0 tense marker
- They walk, +pres, 0
- They cannot walk, abs of inflection, bare infinitive
UNGRAMMATICALITY
- Pizza does not like John
- Semantically impossible, VP needs a +human agent
- John no like pizza
- Syntactically impossible, VP needs a neg OP
- Him doesn’t like pizza
- Syntactically impossible, DP spec is overt and nominative
- She doesn’t like he
- Semantically and syntactically impossible, DP complement is marked in objective case
NOMINALISATION
It is a process of:
- The creation of NP category - IA
- The function of DP in X’
- The marking of nominative case – marking of case theory
We have two approaches to it:
- Category creation / IA – adj to np
Why is this different? The non- finite is the syntactic subject.
IP2 is the complement to the DP
We show –ing under IP2 and there is no inflectional movement.
- Phrasal creation / IP – VP takes on DP function (her singing irritates me/He is fond of singing, I like singing/I like to sing) – creation of nominalized phrases
- Non finites
- Theta roles (semantic) – agent, theme and experiencer. What we are discussing is the relationshop between the predicate and its arguments. These roles, remain intact even when there is a change in voice, tense or focus. They allow us to understand DS better
- “”Theta Theory – a module within Principles and Parameters. The focus in on verbs and to a lesser extent prepositions. ‘Propositions’ (sentences, one predicate
- one or more arguments). It deals with the semantic roles of predicates at DS.
Theta roles and Case theory are different. The first one is semantic while case theory is a combination of semantics and structural constraints. In particular, when we discuss nominative case.
What is Case? Another module in GB theory in case assignment of overt DPs. Not all phrases assign case. It states that all overt DPs must be assigned case, morphological or abstract. We have nominative and accusative/objective, genitive.
- Objective at DS, assigned by transitive verbs and preposition ‘for’
- Nominative at SS, assigned at spec IP by finite verbs.
Case Configuration
- V and P(objective)
- Case assign to the right, their complement ■ I did it for them ■ Jean kissed him
- IP (finite V) (objective in DS, nominative in SS)
- Case assign to the left, their specifier ■ He was seen in London ■ He saw me in London
- CP
- Case assign to the right, spec of their IP complement ■ For him to leave now would be unacceptable
Although, verbs and prepositions mark case, not all subjects have semantic meaning:
- It amazes me
- I was amazed by his intelligence
- There are three cats on the roof
*Him cannot see she – case filter *John is proud (her) – of her *His dislike (women) – of women *a dealer (antiques) – of antiques
What is the semantic significance? Logical arguments do not move at DS/SVO What is the syntactic significance? EPP, structural constraints cause movements at SS What is the morphological significance? Pronouns have overt case marking in most cases.
ACTIVE VS PASSIVE VOICE
