DISCOURSE ANALYSIS INGLESE 1, Slide di Lingua Inglese

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Discourse Analysis

Discourse Analysis

 We were asking how it is that language-users successfully interpret what other language-users intend to convey.  When we carry this investigation further and ask:  (^) how we make sense of what we read,  (^) how we can recognize well-constructed texts as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent,  (^) how we understand speakers who communicate more than they say,  (^) how we successfully take part in that complex activity called conversation,  we are undertaking what is known as discourse analysis.

Discourse Analysis

 In order to interpret and decode meaning we need to process:  Cohesion  Coherence  Hedges  Implicature  Background knowledge  Schemas and script

Cohesion

 Texts must have a certain structure that depends on factors quite different from those required in the structure of a single sentence.  Some of those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties and connections that exist within texts.  (^) My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However , he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible.

Cohesion

 Cohesive ties/markers and connectors/connectives:  additive: and, or, furthermore, similarly , in addition  adversative: but, however, on the other hand nevertheless  causal: so, consequently, for this reason, it follows from this  time: then, after that, an hour later, finally, at last

Coherence

 The key to the concept of coherence is not something that exists in words or structures, but something that exists in people. It is people who “make sense” of what they read and hear.  People try to arrive at an interpretation that is in line with their experience of the way the world is.  Our ability to make sense of what we read/hear is probably only a small part of that general ability we have to make sense of what we perceive or experience in the world.

Hedges

 Hedges can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we’re not really sure that what we’re saying is sufficiently correct or complete.  We can use sort of or kind of as hedges on the accuracy of our statements, as in descriptions such as “The book cover is sort of yellow” (rather than “It is yellow”).  Other examples would include the expressions listed below that people sometimes put at the beginning of their conversational contributions.  (^) As far as I know …,  (^) Now, correct me if I’m wrong, but …  (^) I’m not absolutely sure, but ….  The difference between saying  (^) Jackson is guilty Vs I think it’s possible that Jackson may be guilty. implies that in the first utterance, we will be assumed to have very good evidence for the statement.

Implicature

 When we try to analyze how hedges work, we usually talk about speakers implying something that is not said.  Consider the following example.  CAROL: Are you coming to the party tonight? LARA: I’ve got an exam tomorrow.  Lara’s answer is not simply a statement about tomorrow’s activities, it contains an implicature (an additional conveyed meaning) concerning tonight’s activities

Schemas and Scripts

 Background knowledge is built on Schemas and Scripts  A schema is a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that exists in memory. We were using our conventional knowledge of what a school classroom is like, or a “classroom schema,” as in the above example.  A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That is, instead of the set of typical fixed features in a schema, a script has a series of conventional actions that take place.

Schemas and Scripts

Ex.: Trying not to be out of the office for long, Suzy went into the nearest place, sat down and ordered an avocado sandwich. It was quite crowded, but the service was fast, so she left a good tip. Back in the office, things were not going well. ‘Eating in a restaurant’ schema Vs ‘Eating in a restaurant’ script

Conversation Analysis

 There are different expectations of conversational style and different strategies of participation in conversation.  The participants characterized as “rude” or “shy” in this way may simply be adhering to slightly different conventions of turn-taking.  In fact, one of the most noticeable features of conversational discourse is that it is generally very “co-operative.” This observation has been formulated as a principle of conversation.

The Co-operative Principle

 The co-operative principle is stated in the following way:  “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice, 1975: 45).

Critical Discourse Analysis

 Brian Paltridge describes CDA as follows: “Critical discourse analysis explores the connections between the use of language and the social and political contexts in which it occurs. It explores issues such as gender, ethnicity, cultural difference, ideology and identity and how these are both constructed and reflected in texts. It also investigates ways in which language constructs and is constructed by social relationships” (2006: 179).

British newspaper the Sun (February 2,

 BRITAIN INVADED BY ARMY OF ILLEGALS Britain is being swamped by a tide of illegal immigrants so desperate for a job that they will work for a pittance in our restaurants, cafés and nightclubs. Immigration officers are being overwhelmed with work. Last year, 2191 “illegals” were nabbed and sent back home. But there were tens of thousands more, slaving behind bars, cleaning hotel rooms and working in kitchens … Illegals sneak in by:

• DECEIVING immigration officers when they are quizzed at airports
• DISAPPEARING after their entry visas run out
• FORGING work permits and other documents
• RUNNING AWAY from immigration detention centres