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Encyclopedia of

Algorithms

Ming-Yang Kao

Editor-in-Chief

Second Edition

Encyclopedia of Algorithms

Ming-Yang Kao

Editor

Encyclopedia of

Algorithms

Second Edition

With 379 Figures and 51 Tables

Editor Ming-Yang Kao Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Northwestern University Evanston, IL, USA

ISBN 978-1-4939-2863-7 ISBN 978-1-4939-2864-4 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-4939-2865-1 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/ 978-1-4939-2864-

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015958521

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2008, 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York

About the Editor

Ming-Yang Kao is a Professor of Computer Science in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at Northwestern University. He has published extensively in the design, analysis, and applications of algorithms. His current interests include discrete optimization, bioinformatics, computational economics, computational finance, and nanotechnology. He serves as the Editor-in-Chief of Algorithmica. He obtained a B.S. in Mathematics from National Taiwan University in 1978 and a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Yale University in 1986. He previously taught at Indiana University at Bloomington, Duke University, Yale University, and Tufts University. At Northwestern University, he has served as the Department Chair of Computer Science. He has also cofounded the Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics and served as its Director. He currently serves as the Head of the EECS Division of Computing, Algorithms, and Applications and is a Member of the Theoretical Computer Science Group. For more information, please see www.cs.northwestern.edu/~^ kao

vii

Area Editors

Algorithm Engineering

Giuseppe F. Italiano ^ Department of Computer and Systems Science, University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Department of Information and Computer Systems, University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Rajeev Raman ^ Department of Computer Science, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Algorithms for Modern Computers

Alejandro López-Ortiz David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada

Algorithmic Aspects of Distributed Sensor Networks

Sotiris Nikoletseas Computer Engineering and Informatics Department, University of Patras, Patras, Greece

Computer Technology Institute and Press “Diophantus”, Patras, Greece

Approximation Algorithms

Susanne Albers ^ Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany

Chandra Chekuri ^ Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, The Open University of Israel, Raanana, Israel

Ming-Yang Kao Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

Sanjeev Khanna ^ University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Samir Khuller ^ Computer Science Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Acknowledgment for first edition contribution

ix

x Area Editors

Average Case Analysis

Paul (Pavlos) Spirakis ^ Computer Engineering and Informatics, Research and Academic Computer Technology Institute, Patras University, Patras, Greece

Computer Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Computer Technology Institute (CTI), Patras, Greece

Bin Packing

Leah Epstein Department of Mathematics, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Bioinformatics

Miklós Csürös Department of Computer Science, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada

Certified Reconstruction and Mesh Generation

Siu-Wing Cheng Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China

Tamal Krishna Dey Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Coding Algorithms

Venkatesan Guruswami ^ Department of Computer Science and Engineer- ing, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

Combinatorial Group Testing

Ding-Zhu Du Computer Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

Department of Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Combinatorial Optimization

Samir Khuller ^ Computer Science Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Compressed Text Indexing

Tak-Wah Lam Department of Computer Science, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Compression of Text and Data Structures

Gonzalo Navarro Department of Computer Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

xii Area Editors

Department of Information and Computer Systems, University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Enumeration Algorithms

Takeaki Uno National Institute of Informatics, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan

Exact Exponential Algorithms

Fedor V. Fomin Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

External Memory Algorithms

Herman Haverkort Department of Computer Science, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Game Theory

Mohammad Taghi Hajiaghayi Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Geometric Networks

Andrzej Lingas Department of Computer Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Graph Algorithms

Samir Khuller ^ Computer Science Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Seth Pettie Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Vijaya Ramachandran ^ Computer Science, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA

Liam Roditty Department of Computer Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel

Dimitrios Thilikos AlGCo Project-Team, CNRS, LIRMM, France

Department of Mathematics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Graph Drawing

Seokhee Hong School of Information Technologies, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Internet Algorithms

Edith Cohen Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Area Editors xiii

I/O-Efficient Algorithms

Herman Haverkort Department of Computer Science, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Kernels and Compressions

Gregory Gutin Department of Computer Science, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Massive Data Algorithms

Herman Haverkort Department of Computer Science, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Mathematical Optimization

Ding-Zhu Du Computer Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Department of Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Mechanism Design

Yossi Azar ^ Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Mobile Computing

Xiang-Yang Li ^ Department of Computer Science, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA

Modern Learning Theory

Maria-Florina Balcan Department of Machine Learning, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Online Algorithms

Susanne Albers ^ Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany Yossi Azar ^ Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel Marek Chrobak Computer Science, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA Alejandro López-Ortiz David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada

Parameterized Algorithms

Dimitrios Thilikos AlGCo Project-Team, CNRS, LIRMM, France Department of Mathematics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Area Editors xv

Grant Schoenebeck Computer Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Stable Marriage Problems, k-SAT Algorithms

Kazuo Iwama Computer Engineering, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan

String Algorithms and Data Structures

Paolo Ferragina ^ Department of Computer Science, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy Gonzalo Navarro Department of Computer Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

Steiner Tree Algorithms

Ding-Zhu Du Computer Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Department of Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Sublinear Algorithms

Andrew McGregor School of Computer Science, University of Mas- sachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA Sofya Raskhodnikova Computer Science and Engineering Department, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, PA, USA

Tile Self-Assembly

Robert Schweller Department of Computer Science, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX, USA

VLSI CAD Algorithms

Hai Zhou Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) Depart- ment, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

xviii Contributors

Vera Asodi Center for the Mathematics of Information, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Peter Auer Chair for Information Technology, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Leoben, Austria

Pranjal Awasthi Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA

Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

Adnan Aziz Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA

Moshe Babaioff Microsoft Research, Herzliya, Israel

David A. Bader College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Michael Bader Department of Informatics, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany

Maria-Florina Balcan Department of Machine Learning, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Hideo Bannai Department of Informatics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Nikhil Bansal Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Jérémy Barbay Department of Computer Science (DCC), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

Sanjoy K. Baruah Department of Computer Science, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Surender Baswana Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur, Kanpur, India

MohammadHossein Bateni Google Inc., New York, NY, USA

Luca Becchetti Department of Information and Computer Systems, University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Xiaohui Bei Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

József Békési Department of Computer Science, Juhász Gyula Teachers Training College, Szeged, Hungary

Djamal Belazzougui Department of Computer Science, Helsinki Institute for Information Technology (HIIT), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Contributors xix

Aleksandrs Belovs Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Aaron Bernstein Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Vincent Berry Institut de Biologie Computationnelle, Montpellier, France Randeep Bhatia Bell Laboratories, Alcatel-Lucent, Murray Hill, NJ, USA Andreas Björklund Department of Computer Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Eric Blais University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada Mathieu Blanchette Department of Computer Science, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada Markus Bläser Department of Computer Science, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany Avrim Blum School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Hans L. Bodlaender Department of Computer Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Sergio Boixo Quantum A.I. Laboratory, Google, Venice, CA, USA Paolo Boldi Dipartimento di Informatica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy Glencora Borradaile Department of Computer Science, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Ulrik Brandes Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany Andreas Brandstädt Computer Science Department, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany Department of Informatics, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany Gilles Brassard Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada Vladimir Braverman Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Tian-Ming Bu Software Engineering Institute, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China Adam L. Buchsbaum Madison, NJ, USA