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Oilwell Drilling Engineering (Mitchell, 10th ed.), Notas de estudo de Engenharia de Petróleo
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MITCHELL
oCopyright,USALibrary of Congress,1974to MitchellEngineering
1OthEdition,lst Revision,July 1995
Dr. Bill Mitchell MITCIIELL ENGINEERING 12299 WestNew MexicoPlace Lakewood,CO80228,USA Email:[email protected] Tel#:3039867453USA
All rightsreserved.Thisbook or anypart thereofmustnot be reproducedin anyform without the written consentofMITCIIELL ENGINEERING.
Printedin theUnitedStatesof America.
For additionalcopiescontact: The (^) SocietyofPetroleumEngineersof theAIME, PO Box 833836,Richardson, Texas,75083-3836,USA. Tel#: Fax#: Email: [email protected]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CIIAPIF,R I TLIBIJITARDESIGNAI{D USE...................................oo..I
Tubular Design and use......... .......
FailureTheories..... ............
Tubular End Conditions............. ...,..............
Namesof Casings............ ........
Loads.... ........
Salt and Diaperic Shale...... ...........
$,ffiF;"8::hHl?FIr:::::::::::::::::::i, Drilling (^) Burst Criteria.. ................. An Overview of Casing Selection. .......lii Minimum Tubular Strengths ................. Failure Mode.... ......... Triaxial Equation (^) ...... Real Gas (^) .........n Fundamentals of Tubulars......... ....n Stress Analysis. (^) ........n Effective Tension.. .... BuoyedWeight. ........... Free (^) Bodies.... ...........A Stretch and Wall Strains... ......... Change in the Dinmeter of a Tube ....... Bending Stressin Dog1egs............ ..... Lubinski Bending Stress ......... Buckling v. Tension & Compression... .... Critical Buckling Events of Casing ...........t Buckling Tendency & Wellhead Load. ........... Intermediate Casing Design ......... Tubular Strengths............. ............. API CollapseResistance...... .................@ API Internal Pressure Resistance ........... Pipe Body Yield Strength ..............? , API Hydrostatic Test Pressures .......... , Toleranceson Dimensions...... ................. Make-up Torque for API Couplings............. ................ Round Thread with Bending and Tension.. (^) ...........S , , Tubular Connections..... (^) ..... Slack-offBendingLoads... (^) ............S Surface Running Loads (^) ..... Dogleg Running Loads ......... Tubing Design (^) .... Drillpipe (^) Design... ............ Combined Tension, Torsion, Bending & Pressure Loads......... ...... lm Von Mises Stress ........ Slip Crushing.. ......
. TABLEOFOONIENTS i tvtITCHELLBox 1492 Golden CO 80lm
Fatigueof Drillpipe... ........
Life of Drillpipe.... ....
CasingTally...... .....7n
CasingCentralizerSpacing......... .....1%
CasingSag betweenCentralizers.... ......1Z'
Wall ForceEquation .,........
HelicalBuckledpipe1ength........... ..........
CIIAPIER II DRILLING OPTIMUA'TION METHODS.......................I
Costper^ footEquation... ............tu
Time Value of Money .....
ExpectedValue Method ......
Lagrangian Multiplier ........
Multiple Regressionwith Least Squares ......
ConfidenceLines .........1m
Lagrange'sInterpolation Formula .........1@
CTTAPTERIrI DRrLL HOLE MECrrAhIrCS........................................1(i
SelectingCasingSettingdepths^ ......
Stressesaround a Drill Hole. ...
LeakoffTest... ....t7t
Fracturesin a Drill Hole.. ...
FractureGradientPlot. ........1m
Filtration of Mud into the Formation .......
Barite & Water required to drill a Sectionof Hole.... .......1&f
Solids ConcentrationSelection. ...
CTIAPIER IV I{ICK REIVIOVAL .............
Kill Parameters ......
Initial Conditions.......... ........
Drillers Method ...........1f)
Engineer'sMethod ..........n4,
Kick ControlWorksheet.......... ...2L
Gas Migration ....zLT
Recognition.......... ........m
High WeightPill.... ........%l
Barite Plug... ........nn
Filling the Hole on Trips . .....W
NovelTechniques.... .:..........W
CITAPIERV RrG ITYDRALILTCSo.......o......o.......o...o.........................N
Effect of Mud Weight on Bit HydrauIics.................i.....................?A
Bingham's Drilling efficiencyDiagram .......?fi
Optimal Bottom Hole Cleaning....... ..2A
Theory of Maximizing Impact Force ....2ffi
Effect of Mud Weight of Bit Hydraulics............ .............%
Hole Cleaning ....2n
Drill Cuttingsconcentrationin the Annulus.......... ...........W
Hopkin'sParticle Slip VelocityChart ........?Sl
TABLEOFCONTENTS ii MITCHELLBox1492GoldenCO 804C
Lock-up of the Drill String..... ..... Available Torque for the Drill bit ....... CementingProblems...... ......... Cement Sheath within Casing. ... ConveyedLogging ......... Case Histories^ ....4n Austin Chalk Well ..........4n Tyra field offshore Denmark .........4n
crrAPrER vln BoTTOM HOLE A,SS8M8LI8S................r.................4n Purposeof BHA ........... Type of BHS's .....4n Discussion of Components ...4n Mechanical Properties of BHA..^ .....4n Tapered (^) BHA... ........431i Usable Hole Diameter ...... Centrifugal Force. ...m Torsional Dampening....... .............. Torque of a Spinning BHA....... .....U Torsional Buckling of a BHA and Drillpipe ... .......e Buckling by Rotational Drag .....M Critical Buckling Load....... .............re Weight on Drill bit in Veritcal and Inclined HoIes........................U Critical Rotary Speedsof BHA ... Placement of the Pendulum Stabilizer ........ PackedBHA ..... Directional BHA (^) ......@ BHA Connections.. (^) ...4& Make-up of Connections..... (^) ............& Identification of Connectionsand Drillpipe ...........&
CIIAPIER D(^ AIR DRILLING.......^ .........4f Advantages and Limitations of Air/Gas... ..... Air Drilling Equipment ......ffi Pneumaticsand Hydraulics........... (^) .............. PressureLossesin Pipe and Fittings....... (^) .......... Air Temperature Increases on Compression ..... Air Pressure Requirements ...... Mist Drilling Volumes and Pressure Requirements..................... Foam Drilling Volumes and Pressure Requirements........ .... Aerated Mud Volume and Pressure Requirements.. ........ IKOKU ...........48r|
OperationalProcedures... ..........4{
ConcentricDrillpipe and the Jet Sub. ..........
ParasiteString ......49+
Safety Practices ................4S)
CHAPTER X CEMENT .........5M
One DozenCementationProblems ......
TABLEOF CONTENTS iv MITCHELLBox 1492 Golden CO 80402
Solutionsto a DozenProblems........ ..........
BalancedPlug CementationFormula.......... ................
CementationTemperatures ......
crrAprER xr DRrLL BrT sELECTrON...o..o......... ...............@
Drill Bit Characteristics.... ............5?
RockBit Terminology^ ........5n
Rock Failure Models... ......5%
Drill Bit SelectionCriteria......... .....5A
Trip Time..... .....
Optimal Weight on Bit Rotary Speeds.... ........5S
ContourMethod... .........
Analytical Method.. ..........531i|
Optimal WOB Rotary SpeedCharts .......
DiamondBit HydraulicLift Off...... .......
Dull Bit Grading ....W
crrAPrERxrr^ FrsHrNG.......o......^ .......... Definitions..... ......... To Fish or Not to Fish ............ When to Stop Fishing.. ...# Break-evenCharts..........., .......... ExpectedValue Method ........5il Confrdence Lines Least Squares.. ................. Differential Sticking...... ......5m Mechanics of Differential Sticking ....... Freeing Differentially Stuck Pipe .. ...... Jars and Accelerators.... (^) ..... Back-off. ...5@ Free Point ...,..5@ Free Point Procedures.... .........5@ Free Point with Pipe Stretch.... .......5@ Back-offProcedure..... (^) ......... Latching on to a Fish..... (^) ... Overshot Specifications.. ...... Milling (^) .... WashoverPipe..... (^) ......... Rotary Shoes..... (^) .... Perforation of Pipe.. ........ Perforating Procedure........ ...... Fishing Wire Line Tools...... .............. Fishing small objects... ..... Fishing Drill Collars .......... Fishing Drillpipe (^) ...... Back-offDepth.. (^) ......... Cutting of Tubulars........ (^) ...... Sidetracking........ (^) .... Whipstock.. .......... ... .....5m PDM snd Bent sub... (^) ... ... ..591"
TABLEOFCONTENTS v MITCHELLBox 1492CroldenCO
ADVANS@ED
OruWELL
DRILLING
ENGINEERING
HANDts@@K
CHAPTER I
TUBULAR (^) DESIGN AT{D USE
GEX\F;RAL
The axiom of tubular design is that the loads placed on a tube by natural phenomena must be offset by its strengths. There are many natural phenomena which could dictate a particular (^) tubular design. Also, there are many theories for determining (^) the strengths of a tube. The tubular designer must therefore derive practical (^) design equations from the theories and phenomena. These equations represent the "criteria for tubular design".
COMMON FAILURE TTIEORY A,SSI.]MPTIONS
The most common simplifying assumptions with regard to tubular (^) strengths are that the failure (^) theory known as the MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY (^) OF DISTORTION (^) THEORY1 applies only to tubular collapse ffifigths and that only biaxial2 loads are considered within the theory. Thus tensile loads and burst loads are thought to be uniaxial3 and strengths are rationalized with the MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL (^) STRESS THEORY OF FAILURE.4 Design factors are usually based on experience.
I (^) This theory predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads when the portion of the strain energy per unit volume producing change of shape (as opposed to change of volume) reaches a failure determined by a uniaxial test.
Refer to Strengths of Materials, (^) by S. Timonshenko, reprint 1976, Krieger Publishing Company.
2 Biaxial loads are those which result in (^) the material of a structure being
subjected to the simultaneous action (^) of tension or compression in two perpendicular directions. Reference same as above.
3 Uniaxial loads are those which result in the material of a structure being
subjected to the action of tension or compression in one direction only. Reference same as above.
a This (^) theory predicts (^) failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of
normal and shear stresses when the maximum principal (^) stress, which is the maximum normal (^) stress acting on a set of perpendicular planes which have no shear stress acting on them, reaches a failure value determined by a uniaxial test. Reference same as above.
TTJBT]I"AR ENID CONDITIONS
The ends of tubulars (top and bottom of the casing) may either be fixed or free. The bottom end is usually free until cemented and the top end is free until the wellhead slips are set. These conditions are tubular end conditions. The common
TUBULARDESIGNANDUSE MITCHELLBox 1492GoldenCO 80402
I{YDROGEN SULFIDE AT.IDSTEEL
SOIJRSERVICE - (Hydrogen Sulfide)
NACE Material Requirement MR-01-75 defrnes gas as "sour" if the partial
pressureof HydrogenSulfide is 0.05psia or more.
At 10000 psi, this translates to 5 parts per million (ppm) or
hydrogen sulfide.
MR-01-75doesnot addresspressuresin excessof 10000psi or
less than 0.05 psia. The NACE definition of "sour"is in Figure 1.
Sulfide-stress cracking of a particular^ steel depends on the amount of Hydrogen Sulfide present and also on the amount of tensile stress in the steel.
Steel at low stress can tolerate more Hydrogen Sulfrde than it (^) can at high stress. The "threshold stress" is the maximum stress that the steel can tolerate without brittle fracture.
0.0005 Mol%oof
partial pressures
NACEDefinitionof Sour Gas
o $r o J o oo
o-
5 10 t5 20 25
Partsper MillionHydrogenSullide
The Threshold Stress decreasesas the amount of Hydrogen Sulfide increases.
Similarly, (^) steel at high temperature can tolerate more Hydrogen Sulfide than it can at lower temperatures.
Manufacturers usually classify a steel as "sour^ service" if the minimum Threshold Stress is 80Voor more of the yield stress in tests at room temperature.
The next charts, for example, show that steel of grade P-100 should not be used for sour service unless temperatures are 175"F or more while H2S is in contact with
the steel.
TUBULARDESIGNANDUSE MITCHELLBox1492GoldenCO 80402
4. Friction loads act in the axial direction of the tubular if torsion is
not present. Theseloads are derived from either an inclined hole
or a doglgg.Pogl.gs cause a two fold friction probl.-r ii) tt
forces which bend the tubular around the dogleg Jp G-or ttt""
!qb.- against the wall of the-hole causing ltti^ highest oi a".i
friction-s,and (2) becauseall of the sectiorrJof a dogieg ."r,
"ot
U"
vgltica!, the !u!ular, becauseof gravity, will be tvl"f -lrr" ro
side of the hole,
-producing
drag. Aiio Drag is i"oa".la i"
inclined holes only becausegravity [ulh the tub6 to tlie-io* riae or
the hole. A lo-adpbqd on itubut-ai, such as a collar iisr"g o".
ledge, is not d"ag. It is contactload.
5. contact loads are those nlacgd on a tuburar by objects within the
hole. commot objectsare ledges,other pipe, b;dds;;a
trr"
bottom of the hole.
6. Formation loads can causehoop loads to levels near those of the
overburden. Movement of salt-zones are an example. Ii is also
possiblefor tlgnqed bRne in a salt zoneto developrrit-o""rf.r"a",
pressure and hydraulically collapsecasing.
7. App-liedloads at the surfaceoften lead to tubular failure. Comrnon
loads are the following
internal and extemal pnessures
p-ick-up and slqck ofiolttre cesi-g
ctangfng the weight of the int€r;al or extemal fluids
evacuat'ng the easing
Most human errors which directly cause the failure of tubulars
are those for which combination loads are overlooked. For
ex-a4ple, internal pressure and pick-up both add tensio" to
tubular. "
8. Temperature changesproduceloads.
9. Tubular corrosion and erosion are not loads, but both reduce the
gtre-nglh of tubulars. Tubular erosion (reduction of wall ttticttr"s)
pv dafl collar or tooljoint_wear while io*;;;t of casing cannot
be reliably quantified at this time; tto*""e",-.o-" d;igr#, .Ja.
measure of wall thickness to account foi anticipafia -."orio"
and./or corrosion.
ruBUUR DESIGNAl.lDUSE 3 MITCHELLBox 1492 GoHen CO 8O4O
SALT AI.ID DIAPERIC SIIALE
The basic guidelines for preventing collapsecausedby plastic salt are as follows
in order of decreasingpriority:
1. Drill a gaugehole through the salt.
2. Get a goodcementjob.
3. Run heavy wall pipe.
Two completely different mechanisms may responsible for casing collapse. A
third is indirectly responsible, but may be the more prevalent cause of failure.
Two of the mechanismsare shown in the sketches:
1. Salt SheerLoading
2. Salt Point Ioading
A good sheath of cement reduces the point loading and makes the external load +gr_e like^ hyd-rostatic pressure. The best results^ are obtained by increasing^ wall thickness, _rather than yreld strength. If point loading occurs, i[ is untikely that even the heaviest pipe (^) which is practical (^) to run (^) will be strong enough. A minimum collapse rating (^) corresponding to a load of 1 psilft (^) or moie is uJually required.
ruBULARDESIGNAtllDUSE 6 MITCHELLBox 1492 Golden CO 80402
CA,SINGDESIGN CRITERIA
MAI{AGEMEhIT'S GI'IDELINES
Satisffing management'gguidelines is one step in the processof choosingcasing.
Their guidelines fit into the schemeof design after the objectives and loads are
reconciled and before the creation of specific criteria into which the casing must
fit. The total processof selectingcasinginvolves these steps.
1. Decideon rational objectivesto be attained by the casing.
2. Identi$ the loads to which the casing will be subjectedduring its
life.
3. Satisfr mqnagement's guidelines. Management'sguidelines will
be broad and present^ a balancebetweenrisk and cost.
4. Create specificc'riteria in the forn of equations and charts for the
well.
5. Make the computationsand draw the charts.
6. Select casing.
Management'g guidelines are baeedon risk and cost analysis. When addressing
guidelines it should be kept in mind that the primary objective of design is not to
eliminate failures; but to provide an optimutn balance between materials costs
and risk costs.
It is the designers function to explain to management that his design satisfies
their guidelines.
Major guideline topics for management'sconsiderationsare
Inspectionof casing
Whether to runcasing emptyorfilled
Considerations for running cadng tfrcugh doglegB
Margin of overpull for pulling casing
Cqsi-g urcar by drilling operations
Run ne'w or used ca.cing
Loss offluid level witldn the cadng 0ost circailation)
Gas column to surface versus gas kick bubble, versus water
oohrnn for mrrdaoeburtst
Displacement of ement plugl with mud or waten
Cementbackto thesur&e
ruBULARDES]GNAT{DUSE 7 MITCHELLBox 1492^ Golden^ CO
a. the full formation fluid pressure acts on the casing b. the formation's rock bearing stresses act on the casing.
- Maximum tensile loads occur during running casing through doglegs or after cementing during stability loadings.
Tensile failures and collapse can be tolerated, but a burst failure, particularly if it occurs at the surface, may be disastrous. A discussion and comparison of various drilling burst load conditions is presented below.
The following criteria and equations are popular in the industry.
TEhISION
INWORD FORI{A'"
The design tensile load is the weight of the steel in the casing below the depth for which the casing is being designed. The backup is the buoyancy of the casing below the point. Dogleg bending loads are included and are to be computed with Lubinski's modified equation.
IN EQUATION FORIT,IAT
St = DF [*b * (TVD - D) + Flun]
q =^ hnsile strength of the tube or joint; lb DF - design factor of tube or joint; lb w5 = buoyed weight per foot of the casing; lb/ft TVD = total vertical depth of the hole; ft D - design depth; ft Fl,ug = dogleg bending load with Lubinski's equation; lb
BIJR,ST
INWORD FORMAT
The design burst load is the pressure at any depth placed upon the casing by a column of methane gas which extends from the formation containing gas which will produce the highest pressure at the surface or from the shoe of the casing to the surface.
The gas pressure^ at the shoe can not exceed the formation's fracture strength at the shoe. The formation which will produce the highest pressure at the shoe must be reasoned or found by probable formations. In any case their are two basic equations.
The backup load is the pressure of the mud outside the casing at all depths.
I
comparing all
TUBULARDESIGNANDUSE MITCHELLBox'1492GoldenCO8M
IN EQUATION FORIUA'T
% = DF * [{Pr- B^
- (TVD- D)) (^) - if forrnation pressure controls
S = Dtr'
- KPr - 6 *' (^) 1T\rD- D) - #, if fracture^ strength^ controls
MWD-
L9.25J
= casing burst strength; psi
= burst design factor
= formation pressure;psi
= forrnation fracture resistance;psi
= gas gradient; psilft
= depth of hole; ft
= depth of design;ft
= mud weight; ppg
COLT,APSE
INWORD FORIVIA'T
The collapse load is the pressure of the mud outside the casing (^) above the top of the (^) cement and (^) formation fluid pressure below the top of the cement.
Io" pro4uction^ casing,^ there^ is^ no^ backup^ load.^ For intermediate (^) and (^) surface casing, (^) the casing (^) contains a column of (^) water equivalent (^) tt the (^) formaiion fracture strength (^) at the casing shoe.
IN EQUATION FORMAT
Scbix=DF[DMW-0]
Scbix = DF * [D * MW - WG * (D - EL)]
in the evacuated space above the water column
in the water column
q DF Pf Pn B TVD D MW
sc bix
Sc bit DF D MW WG EL
= (^) casing collapse strength; psi = (^) API method of derating collapse strength for tension = (^) derated collapse (^) strength ofcasing; psi = (^) design factor = (^) depth of design; ft = (^) mud weight; ppg = (^) water gradient; psi/ft = (^) evacuated length; ft