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LATEX Tutorials

A PRIMER

Indian TEX Users Group

Trivandrum, India

2003 September

LATEX TUTORIALS — A PRIMER

Indian TEX Users Group

EDITOR: E. Krishnan

COVER: G. S. Krishna

Copyright c© 2002 , 2003 Indian TEX Users Group

Floor III, SJP Buildings, Cotton Hills

Trivandrum 695014 , India

http://www.tug.org.in

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU

Free Documentation License, version 1. 2 , with no invariant sections, no front-cover texts, and no

back-cover texts. A copy of the license is included in the end.

This document is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but without any warranty; without

even the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

Published by the Indian TEX Users Group

Online versions of this tutorials are available at:

http://www.tug.org.in/tutorials.html

CONTENTS

I. The Basics..................................... 7

I. 1 What is LATEX? – 7 • I. 2 Simple typesetting – 8 • I. 3 Fonts – 13 • I. 4 Type size – 15

II. The Document.................................. 17

II. 1 Document class – 17 • II. 2 Page style – 18 • II. 3 Page numbering – 19 • II. 4 Formatting lengths – 20 • II. 5 Parts of a document – 20 • II. 6 Dividing the document – 21 • II. 7 What next?

• 23

III. Bibliography................................... 27

III. 1 Introduction – 27 • III. 2 natbib – 28

IV. Bibliographic Databases............................. 33

IV. 1 The BIBTEX program – 33 • IV. 2 BIBTEX style files – 33 • IV. 3 Creating a bibliographic database – 34

V. Table of contents, Index and Glossary...................... 39

V. 1 Table of contents – 39 • V. 2 Index – 41 • V. 3 Glossary – 44

VI. Displayed Text.................................. 47

VI. 1 Borrowed words – 47 • VI. 2 Poetry in typesetting – 48 • VI. 3 Making lists – 48 • VI. 4 When order matters – 51 • VI. 5 Descriptions and definitions – 54

VII. Rows and Columns................................ 57

VII. 1 Keeping tabs – 57 • VII. 2 Tables – 62

VIII. Typesetting Mathematics............................. 77

VIII. 1 The basics – 77 • VIII. 2 Custom commands – 81 • VIII. 3 More on mathematics – 82 • VIII. 4 Mathematics miscellany – 89 • VIII. 5 New operators – 101 • VIII. 6 The many faces of mathematics – 102 • VIII. 7 And that is not all! – 103 • VIII. 8 Symbols – 103

IX. Typesetting Theorems.............................. 109

IX. 1 Theorems in LATEX – 109 • IX. 2 Designer theorems—The amsthm package – 111 • IX. 3 Housekeeping – 118

X. Several Kinds of Boxes.............................. 119

X. 1 LR boxes – 119 • X. 2 Paragraph boxes – 121 • X. 3 Paragraph boxes with specific height – 122 • X. 4 Nested boxes – 123 • X. 5 Rule boxes – 123

XI. Floats....................................... 125

XI. 1 The figure environment – 125 • XI. 2 The table environment – 130

TUTORIAL I

THE BASICS

I. 1. WHAT IS LATEX?

The short and simple answer is that LATEX is a typesetting program and is an extension

of the original program TEX written by Donald Knuth. But then what is a typesetting

program?

To answer this, let us look at the various stages in the preparation of a document

using computers.

1. The text is entered into the computer.

2. The input text is formatted into lines, paragraphs and pages.

3. The output text is displayed on the computer screen.

4. The final output is printed.

In most word processors all these operations are integrated into a single application

package. But a typesetting program like TEX is concerned only with the second stage

above. So to typeset a document using TEX, we type the text of the document and the

necessary formatting commands in a text editor (such as Emacs in GNU/Linux) and then

compile it. After that the document can be viewed using a previewer or printed using a

printer driver.

TEX is also a programming language , so that by learning this language, people can

write code for additional features. In fact LATEX itself is such a (large) collection of extra

features. And the collective effort is continuing, with more and more people writing extra

packages.

I. 1. 1. A small example

Let us see LATEX in action by typesetting a short (really short) document. Start your

favorite text editor and type in the lines below exactly as shown

\documentclass{article} \begin{document} This is my \emph{first} document prepared in \LaTeX. \end{document}

Be especially careful with the \ character (called the backslash ) and note that this is

different from the more familiar / (the slash ) in and/or and save the file onto the hard

disk as myfile.tex. (Instead of myfile you can use any name you wish, but be sure to

have .tex at the end as the extension .) The process of compiling this and viewing the

output depends on your operating system. We describe below the process of doing this

in GNU/Linux.

8 I. THE BASICS

At the shell prompt type

latex myfile

You will see a number of lines of text scroll by in the screen and then you get the prompt

back. To view the output in screen, you must have the X Window running. So, start X if

you have not done so, and in a terminal window, type

xdvi myfile

A window comes up showing the output below

This is my first document prepared in LATEX.

Now let us take a closer look at the source file (that is, the file you have typed).

The first line \documentclass{article} tells LATEX that what we want to produce is an

article. If you want to write a book, this must be changed to \documentclass{book}.

The whole document we want to typeset should be included between \begin{document}

and \end{document}. In our example, this is just one line. Now compare this line in the

source and the output. The first three words are produced as typed. Then \emph{first},

becomes first in the output (as you have probably noticed, it is a common practice to

emphasize words in print using italic letters). Thus \emph is a command to LATEX to

typeset the text within the braces in italic^1. Again, the next three words come out without

any change in the output. Finally, the input \LaTeX comes out in the output as LATEX.

Thus our source is a mixture of text to be typeset and a couple of LATEX commands

\emph and \LaTeX. The first command changes the input text in a certain way and the

second one generates new text. Now call up the file again and add one more sentence

given below.

This is my \emph{first} document prepared in \LaTeX. I typed it on \today.

What do you get in the output? What new text does the command \today generate?

I. 1. 2. Why LATEX?

So, why all this trouble? Why not simply use a word processor? The answer lies in the

motivation behind TEX. Donald Knuth says that his aim in creating TEX is to beautifully

typeset technical documents especially those containing a lot of Mathematics. It is very

difficult (sometimes even impossible) to produce complex mathematical formulas using a

word processor. Again, even for ordinary text, if you want your document to look really

beautiful then LATEX is the natural choice.

I. 2. SIMPLE TYPESETTING

We have seen that to typeset something in LATEX, we type in the text to be typeset together

with some LATEX commands. Words must be separated by spaces (does not matter how

many) and lines maybe broken arbitrarily.

The end of a paragraph is specified by a blank line in the input. In other words,

whenever you want to start a new paragraph, just leave a blank line and proceed. For

example, the first two paragraphs above were produced by the input

(^1) This is not really true. For the real story of the command, see the section on fonts.

10 I. THE BASICS

You get

I think LATEXis fun.

What happened to the space you typed between \LaTeX and is? You see, TEX gobbles up

all spaces after a command. To get the required sequence in the output, change the input

as

I think \LaTeX\ is fun.

Again, the command \ comes to the rescue.

I. 2. 2. Quotes

Have you noticed that in typesetting, opening quotes are different from closing quotes?

Look at the TEX output below

Note the difference in right and left quotes in ‘single quotes’ and “double quotes”.

This is produced by the input

Note the difference in right and left quotes in ‘single quotes’ and ‘double quotes’’.

Modern computer keyboards have a key to type the symbol ` which produces a left quote

in TEX. (In our simulated inputs, we show this symbol as ‘.) Also, the key ’ (the usual

‘typewriter’ quote key, which also doubles as the apostrophe key) produces a left quote

in TEX. Double quotes are produced by typing the corresponding single quote twice. The

‘usual’ double quote key " can also be used to produce a closing double quote in TEX.

If your keyboard does not have a left quote key, you can use \lq command to produce

it. The corresponding command \rq produces a right quote. Thus the output above can

also be produced by

Note the difference in right and left quotes in \lq single quotes\rq\ and \lq\lq double quotes\rq\rq.

(Why the command \ after the first \rq?)

I. 2. 3. Dashes

In text, dashes are used for various purposes and they are distinguished in typesetting by

their lengths; thus short dashes are used for hyphens, slightly longer dashes are used to

indicate number ranges and still longer dashes used for parenthetical comments. Look at

the following TEX output

X-rays are discussed in pages 221 – 225 of Volume 3 —the volume on electromagnetic waves.

This is produced from the input

X-rays are discussed in pages 221--225 of Volume 3---the volume on electromagnetic waves.

Note that a single dash character in the input - produces a hyphen in the output, two

dashes -- produces a longer dash (–) in the output and three dashes --- produce the

longest dash (—) in the output.

I.2. SIMPLE TYPESETTING 11

I. 2. 4. Accents

Sometimes, especially when typing foreign words in English, we need to put different

types of accents over the letters. The table below shows the accents available in LATEX.

Each column shows some of the accents and the inputs to generate them.

o` \‘o o´ \’o oˆ \ˆo o˜ \˜o

o ¯ =o o˙ .o o¨ "o c¸ \c c

o^ ˘ \u o oˇ \v o o˝ \H o o. \d o

o

\b o oo \t oo

The letters i and j need special treatment with regard to accents, since they should not

have their customary dots when accented. The commands \i and \j produce dot-less i

and j as ı and j. Thus to get

El est ´^ ´ a aqu´ı

you must type

\’{E}l est\’{a} aqu\’{\i}

Some symbols from non-English languages are also available in LATEX, as shown in

the table below:

œ \oe Œ \OE æ \ae Æ \AE

\aa \AA

ø \o Ø \O ł \l Ł \L

ß \ss

I. 2. 5. Special symbols

We have see that the input \LaTeX produces LATEX in the output and \ produces a space.

Thus TEX uses the symbol \ for a special purpose—to indicate the program that what

follows is not text to be typeset but an instruction to be carried out. So what if you

want to get \ in your output (improbable as it may be)? The command \textbackslash

produces \ in the output.

Thus \ is a symbol which has a special meaning for TEX and cannot be produced by

direct input. As another example of such a special symbol, see what is obtained from the

input below

Maybe I have now learnt about 1% of \LaTeX.

You only get

Maybe I have now learnt about 1

What happened to the rest of the line? You see, TEX uses the per cent symbol % as the

comment character; that is a symbol which tells TEX to consider the text following as

‘comments’ and not as text to be typeset. This is especially useful for a TEX programmer

to explain a particularly sticky bit of code to others (and perhaps to himself). Even for

ordinary users, this comes in handy, to keep a ‘to do’ list within the document itself for

example.

But then, how do you get a percent sign in the output? Just type % as in

I.3. FONTS 13

\begin{center} The \TeX nical Institute\[.75cm] Certificate \end{center} \noindent This is to certify that Mr. N. O. Vice has undergone a course at this institute and is qualified to be a \TeX nician. \begin{flushright} The Director\ The \TeX nical Institute \end{flushright}

Here, the commands

\begin{center} ... \end{center}

typesets the text between them exactly at the center of the page and the commands

\begin{flushright} ... \end{flushright}

typesets text flush with the right margin. The corresponding commands

\begin{flushleft} ... \end{flushleft}

places the enclosed text flush with the left margin. (Change the flushright to flushleft

and see what happens to the output.)

These examples are an illustration of a LATEX construct called an environment , which

is of the form

\begin{ name } ... \end{ name }

where name is the name of the environment. We have seen an example of an environment

at the very beginning of this chapter (though not identified as such), namely the document

environment.

I. 3. FONTS

The actual letters and symbols (collectively called type ) that LATEX (or any other typeset-

ting system) produces are characterized by their style and size. For example, in this book

emphasized text is given in italic style and the example inputs are given in typewriter

style. We can also produce smaller and bigger type. A set of types of a particular style

and size is called a font.

I. 3. 1. Type style

In LATEX, a type style is specified by family, series and shape. They are shown in the table

I. 1.

Any type style in the output is a combination of these three characteristics. For exam-

ple, by default we get roman family, medium series, upright shape type style in a LATEX

output. The \textit command produces roman family, medium series, italic shape type.

Again, the command \textbf produces roman family, boldface series, upright shape type.

We can combine these commands to produce a wide variety of type styles. For exam-

ple, the input

\textsf{\textbf{sans serif family, boldface series, upright shape}} \textrm{\textsl{roman family, medium series, slanted shape}}

14 I. THE BASICS

Table I. 1 :

STYLE COMMAND

FAMILY

roman \textrm{roman}

sans serif \textsf{sans serif}

typewriter \texttt{typewriter}

SERIES

medium \textmd{medium}

boldface \textbf{boldface}

SHAPE

upright \textup{upright}

italic \textit{italic}

slanted \textsl{slanted}

SMALL CAP \textsc{small cap}

produces the output shown below:

sans serif family, boldface series, upright shape

roman family, medium series, slanted shape

Some of these type styles may not be available in your computer. In that case, LATEX

gives a warning message on compilation and substitutes another available type style

which it thinks is a close approximation to what you had requested.

We can now tell the whole story of the \emph command. We have seen that it usually,

that is when we are in the middle of normal (upright) text, it produces italic shape. But if

the current type shape is slanted or italic, then it switches to upright shape. Also, it uses

the family and series of the current font. Thus

\textit{A polygon of three sides is called a \emph{triangle} and a polygon of four sides is called a \emph{quadrilateral}}

gives

A polygon of three sides is called a triangle and a polygon of four sides is called a quadrilateral

while the input

\textbf{A polygon of three sides is called a \emph{triangle} and a polygon of four sides is called a \emph{quadrilateral}}

produces

A polygon of three sides is called a triangle and a polygon of four sides is called a quadrilateral

Each of these type style changing commands has an alternate form as a declaration.

For example, instead of \textbf{boldface} you can also type {\bfseries boldface} to

get boldface. Note that that not only the name of the command, but its usage also is

different. For example, to typeset

16 I. THE BASICS

\end{center}

\noindent This is to certify that Mr. N. O. Vice has undergone a course at this institute and is qualified to be a \TeX nical Expert.

\begin{flushright} {\sffamily The Director\ The \TeX nical Institute} \end{flushright}

and this produces

The TEXnical Institute

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. N. O. Vice has undergone a course at this institute and is

qualified to be a TEXnical Expert.

The Director

The TEXnical Institute

TUTORIAL II

THE DOCUMENT

II. 1. DOCUMENT CLASS

We now describe how an entire document with chapters and sections and other embellish-

ments can be produced with LATEX. We have seen that all LATEX files should begin by spec-

ifying the kind of document to be produced, using the command \documentclass{... }.

We’ve also noted that for a short article (which can actually turn out to be quite long!) we

write \documentclass{article} and for books, we write \documentclass{book}. There

are other document classes available in LATEX such as report and letter. All of them

share some common features and there are features specific to each.

In addition to specifying the type of document (which we must do, since LATEX has

no default document class), we can also specify some options which modify the default

format.Thus the actual syntax of the \documentclass command is

\documentclass[ options ]{ class }

Note that options are given in square brackets and not braces. (This is often the

case with LATEX commands—options are specified within square brackets, after which

mandatory arguments are given within braces.)

II. 1. 1. Font size

We can select the size of the font for the normal text in the entire document with one of

the options

10pt 11pt 12pt

Thus we can say

\documentclass[11pt]{article}

to set the normal text in our document in 11 pt size. The default is 10pt and so this is the

size we get, if we do not specify any font-size option.

II. 1. 2. Paper size

We know that LATEX has its own method of breaking lines to make paragraphs. It also has

methods to make vertical breaks to produce different pages of output. For these breaks

to work properly, it must know the width and height of the paper used. The various

options for selecting the paper size are given below:

letterpaper 11 × 8. 5 in a4paper 20. 7 × 21 in

legalpaper 14 × 8. 5 in a5paper 21 × 14. 8 in

executivepaper 10. 5 × 7. 25 in b5paper 25 × 17. 6 in

Normally, the longer dimension is the vertical one—that is, the height of the page. The

default is letterpaper.

II.3. PAGE NUMBERING 19

plain The page head is empty and the foot contains just the page number, cen-

tered with respect to the width of the text. This is the default for the

article class if no \pagestyle is specified in the preamble.

empty Both the head and foot are empty. In particular, no page numbers are

printed.

headings This is the default for the book class. The foot is empty and the head

contains the page number and names of the chapter section or subsection,

depending on the document class and its options as given below:

CLASS OPTION LEFT PAGE RIGHT PAGE

book, report

one-sided — chapter

two-sided chapter section

article

one-sided — section

two-sided section subsection

myheadings The same as headings, except that the ‘section’ information in the head

are not predetermined, but to be given explicitly using the commands

\markright or \markboth as described below.

Moreover, we can customize the style for the current page only using the command

\thispagestyle{ style }

where style is the name of one of the styles above. For example, the page number may

be suppressed for the current page alone by the command \thispagestyle{empty}. Note

that only the printing of the page number is suppressed. The next page will be numbered

with the next number and so on.

II. 2. 1. Heading declarations

As we mentioned above, in the page style myheadings, we have to specify the text to

appear on the head of every page. It is done with one of the commands

\markboth{ left head { right head }

\markright{ right head }

where left head is the text to appear in the head on left-hand pages and right head is the

text to appear on the right-hand pages.

The \markboth command is used with the twoside option with even numbered pages

considered to be on the left and odd numbered pages on the right. With oneside option,

all pages are considered to be right-handed and so in this case, the command \markright

can be used. These commands can also be used to override the default head set by the

headings style.

Note that these give only a limited control over the head and foot. since the general

format, including the font used and the placement of the page number, is fixed by LATEX.

Better customization of the head and foot are offered by the package fancyhdr, which is

included in most LATEX distributions.

II. 3. PAGE NUMBERING

The style of page numbers can be specified by the command

\pagenumbering{...}

The possible arguments to this command and the resulting style of the numbers are given

below:

20 II. THE DOCUMENT

arabic Indo-Arabic numerals

roman lowercase Roman numerals

Roman upper case Roman numerals

alph lowercase English letters

Alph uppercase English letters

The default value is arabic. This command resets the page counter. Thus for example, to

number all the pages in the ‘Preface’ with lowercase Roman numerals and the rest of the

document with Indo-Arabic numerals, declare \pagenumbering{roman} at the beginning

of the Preface and issue the command \pagestyle{arabic} immediately after the first

\chapter command. (The \chapter{...} command starts a new chapter. We will come

to it soon.)

We can make the pages start with any number we want by the command

\setcounter{page}{ number }

where number is the page number we wish the current page to have.

II. 4. FORMATTING LENGTHS

Each page that LATEX produces consists not only of a head and foot as discussed above

but also a body (surprise!) containing the actual text. In formatting a page, LATEX uses

the width and heights of these parts of the page and various other lengths such as the

left and right margins. The values of these lengths are set by the paper size options and

the page format and style commands. For example, the page layout with values of these

lengths for an odd page and even in this book are separately shown below.

These lengths can all be changed with the command \setlength. For example,

\setlength{\textwidth}{15cm}

makes the width of text 15 cm. The package geometry gives easier interfaces to customize

page format.

II. 5. PARTS OF A DOCUMENT

We now turn our attention to the contents of the document itself. Documents (especially

longer ones) are divided into chapters, sections and so on. There may be a title part

(sometimes even a separate title page) and an abstract. All these require special typo-

graphic considerations and LATEX has a number of features which automate this task.

II. 5. 1. Title

The “title” part of a document usually consists of the name of the document, the name

of author(s) and sometimes a date. To produce a title, we make use of the commands

\title{ document name }

\author{ author names }

\date{ date text }

\maketitle

Note that after specifying the arguments of \title, \author and \date, we must issue the

command \maketitle for this part to be typeset.

By default, all entries produced by these commands are centered on the lines in which

they appear. If a title text is too long to fit in one line, it will be broken automatically.

However, we can choose the break points with the \ command.

If there are several authors and their names are separated by the \and command, then

the names appear side by side. Thus