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LING 115 MIDTERM 2 REVISED
A global lang is a lang that has __ and __ - correct answer ✔✔special role & widespread use. Language used by people more than any other land....with many L speakers!! Three ways to attain special role - correct answer ✔✔1. Mother tongue of majority of country (but this is not enough to make a lang a GL because not every country has Eng as l1); 2. If recognized as off lang of courty (Eng in 75+ countries); 3. Promoted as edu. Eng is the L1/L2 of how many people - correct answer ✔✔1.2-1.5 billion. How many people speak Chinese? Eligible for GL - correct answer ✔✔1.1 bil. No, because not many L2 speakers and geogrpahically isolated. A lang becomes a GL when ___ (1 thing!) - correct answer ✔✔used by an influential group. Ex - 1. Latin (Roman Empire and Roman Catholic Church); 2. French (Napoleon's Empire). How did Latin and French fall from LF status? - correct answer ✔✔Latin - Roman Empire collapsed and Catholic Church did not encourage Latin literacy within pop. French - was an LF because it had many colonies, but then Napoleon fell = no more French empire = rise of Eng. The geographical extent throughout which a LLF can be used is governed by - correct answer ✔✔political factors. LFs can extend over small domains or link trading populations of many countries, or be like Latin (throughout Roman empire). What kinds of events resulted in Eng becoming a LF? - correct answer ✔✔colonization, industrial rev (1800s, Britain; people came and went to learn about/spread technology); modernization of trade/globalization of economy (mediated in Eng); digital rev (late 1900s)
Which langs are commons LFs today? - correct answer ✔✔Swahili, Arabic, Spanish, French, Eng, Hindi, Portu. Eng was in the right place at the right time (timeline with three points) - correct answer ✔✔1. Spread of English by military force and colonization by British in 18th and 19th centuries; 2. British led industry and trade; 3. US had a HUGE population and fast-growing economy. 2 advantages to having a global lang/lingua franca - correct answer ✔✔1. Good for world orgs (League of Nations; Work Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, World Health Org, Intl Atomic Agency; Asso of South East Asian Nations; Coucil of Europe, NATO, OPEC) and restricted international orgs (Euro Union; Commonwealth of Nations)...less expensive translation (Eng as utilitarian/working lang); 2. Helpful with tech developments (air travel and modern int'l communication like email), which have created global village. 3 disadvantages to having Eng as GL - correct answer ✔✔1. L1 speakers might be less keen to learn other langs (creating an elite monolinguistic class who have Eng as L1 and maintain gap bt rich and poor; 2. In business, knowledge of multiple langs is helpful; 3. Lang death caused by GL (but, in reality, lang death is more likely to come form dominance of a regional lang; Galician in SPain might die bc of Spanish), 4. When a person needs only one lang to talk to someone else it, other langs will die away = evolutionary view of lang. Crystal's argument against the claim that Eng as global LF would create imbalance of ling power - correct answer ✔✔if GL is taught early enough and maintained, real bilingualism can occur (would be $$$). Eng in int'l orgs - correct answer ✔✔English was victorious in WWI and WWII bc US and Britain. After WWI, League of Nations involved 42 countries. In 1945, LoN became United Nations, which has 5 off langs now. 85% of int'l orgs use Eng; most with 'Euro' in the title use Eng. Eng in media - correct answer ✔✔newspapers and journals (80% of science journals in Eng); shortwave radio and film; music; air travel.
New World Englishes - What Crystal says the standard will be if English becomes a bunch of dialects - correct answer ✔✔World Standard Spoken Eng, used for inter- regional communication. How British and American Eng are different - pronunciation - correct answer ✔✔1. Stress - in US, stress is earlier on (FRUstrated). 2. 'T' bt vowels is a 'd' for Americans (bottle = boddle). 3. 'U' in tune - (More like the vowel in 'do' for Americans; like the vowel in 'few' in BR). How BR and AM Eng are different - vocab (4 ways they differ) - correct answer ✔✔1. Same word, diff meaning (pants); 2a. Addl meaning in US (bathroom); 2b. Addl meaning in BR (smart); 3. Same word, difference in style/connotation/frequency (autumn, to fancy); 4. Same concept with different word (faucet vs. tap). How New Englishes might not be intelligible; why this happens - correct answer ✔✔Singlish/Colloquial Singaporean Eng. This happens because, when there are many people who speak Eng as an L2, more local differences are created. Attitudes toward Eng - in Asia and Africa; in creative writing - correct answer ✔✔bc Eng did not have many colonial areas in Asia and Africa, there aren't a ton of neg attitudes associated with it; in fact it's a positive asset as an L2 (but you NEED an L to show your identity); 2. Eng expresses new side of personality. Can be useful in creativity; Achebe says Eng should be able to be used in writing, but the writer should not be capable of talking like a native speaker (just use Eng to bring out a message without heavily adapting the lang...bc then it's hard to do intl communication; Eng bears the weight of African experience). How English affects other languages - debate - correct answer ✔✔there's a correlation bt rate of Eng adoption and death of minority langs, which some people think is a causal link (despite lang death that has occurred in absence of English). Anachronistic views of linguistic imperialism (power asymmetry bt colonial nations and third world nations) ignore the fact that many first world countries are presured to adopt Eng, and when first world countries (which have dominant langs), there is something bigger than power relations involved. functionalist account of Eng (Eng is a tool to achieve goals, like empowering the marginalized) is too naive, and Eng is not to blame for the marginalization???idk. Deterding's argument FOR allowing OC and EC speakers to modify English - correct answer ✔✔If their pronunciation of English does not prevent English from being understood internationally, no reason to change it. Some features of pronunciation
found in IC result in reduced contrasts, and OC/EC countries don't need to mimic these, but they need to be able to understand them when IC people use them. Some features of the NVEs of Asia can easily be accepted and couraged, esp those that enhance distinctions bt words and may be lost in IC varieties. // British Eng is changing quickly, so very hard for OC/EC speakers to understand. Which languages does Deterding talk about? - correct answer ✔✔British English and English of Southeast Asia, Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei. Most pronunciation issues do not apply to American Eng. Deterding - which 3 things does good pronunciation enhance? - correct answer ✔✔it distinguishes words and enhances sentence level comprehension and utterance level interpretability. Deterding - the lack of intelligibility bt diff speakers is not a new occurrence - correct answer ✔✔It's not necessary for every instance of speech to be understood by everyone from everywhere (bc two Indian speakers might be talking, but someone from Canada doesn't need to be able to understand), but int'l communication (bt groups) is becoming more impt. L1 Eng speech is not the most easily understood internationally - correct answer ✔✔1. If you are familiar with kind of Eng being spoken, easier to understand. 2. In the past, native speakers' speech as benchmark for intelligibility, but now most conversations in Eng don't include a native speaker, so no need to refer to L1 Eng speech. 3. Pronunciation of NVEs might improve intelligibility, esp bc L2 speakers depend on bottom-up processing (less efficient with contextual clues), so should maintain all segmental clues, esp bc hard to understand NVE if you don't share the same cultural background (Trudgill's argument against Lingua Franca Core--the system of reduced contrasts that Jenkins has proposed for teaching English). Deterding - triphthongs - correct answer ✔✔In the past, vowels in fire and hour were triphthongs in RP British English (/a 工 ə/ and /a stirrup ə/, but there has been a smoothing process, and now both are /aə/, so tyre/tower, sire/sour, shire/shower are homophones. OC/EC countries maintain the distinction with a clear bisyllabic articulation of the triphthongs, often with an intervening j or w. Ex - In Singapore, [fa 工 ə] and [a stirrup w ə]; in the word diet, it is common to insert a j [aIjə]; but if there is no final consonant (fire, higher), there is more freq insertion of /j/. If speakers use pronunciations that are easily intelligible (like these), no need to use British pronunciation. SIMPLIFICATION PROCESS BUT IT'S CONFUSING
R-less English - correct answer ✔✔popularized in 18th century (after Shakespeare). The dropping of an R after a full vowel creates a double-vowel sound (diphthong), including Iə, aə, 工 ə. The extra diphthongs make Eng sound complicated bc there are SO MANY vowels. Plus, the diphthong that arose from dropping of the R sound after the vowel 'u', such as in 'boor' and 'poor' has changed to monophthong that sounds like 工: in 'caught'; speakers no longer differentiate the sounds of the words 'poor' and 'paw'. OC and EC are conservation and maintain distinctions. Triphthongs - correct answer ✔✔aIjə (pyre r-dropped; sire) and a 工 wə (power r- dropped; shower). These 2 triphthongs are now replaced by diphthong aə = simplification, but not so simple in reality because this simplification causes both diphthongs to sound the sample = confusion; must reply on context to tell what is said. OC and EC are conservative. How substrate language (the L1 of speakers) affects how their Eng L2 sounds - correct answer ✔✔speakers make accommodations acc to their substrate. Ex - in South Asian varieties of English, substrate languages use retroflex consonants; depending on how much a speaker adapts Eng to fit their substrate, the local variety of Eng shows characteristics of the substrate. Ex - non-distinctiveness of l and r in Japanese means that Japanese speakers who take on L2 Eng have a hard time making l and r distinct. Ө and ð (thick and that) are often replaced with t d s z, which are common to most langs. Things that correlate with having a clear identity and dominant lang - correct answer ✔✔more wealth, better functioning democracy. Causation is not clear. Example of how trampling the majority lang in lang planning is bad - correct answer ✔✔Franco's Spain. Three ways to handle multilingualism besides squashing minority langs or splitting country - correct answer ✔✔.1. National multilingualism (ex - Canada's Eng and French are both official langs, but it's expensive); 2. Linguistic federalism (ex - Switzerland, India, Canada, Spain) - regions have regional off langs; 3. Teach multilingualism. When 2 languages interact, what happens? When 3 do so? - correct answer ✔✔2 - the dominant lang is used without alteration for communication. 3+ - pidgin develops.
Why pidgins are interesting to linguists - correct answer ✔✔show linguistic change bc the lang is created and shaped by society to meet its needs. D pidgin, D creole - correct answer ✔✔P - simple lang for basic communication; contact lang that is a mixture of all langs spoken by those in the social environ; dominant lang provides vocab; no native speakers; few grammatical rules. C - pidgin that has increased in sophistication enough to be used in all environs and has native speakers (L1); interesting to linguists (bc show the cycle of ling reduction and expansion = lang change) and social historians (show the process of exploration/trade/conquest). Chinook Jargon - correct answer ✔✔North American tribes Hawaiian Pidgin Eng - correct answer ✔✔pineapple plantations among immigrant workers from China, Japan, Portu, and Philippines. Sabir - correct answer ✔✔the 'Mediterranean LF' that began in the Middle Ages and lasted until 20th cent. Krio - correct answer ✔✔(Sierra Leone), English Nigerian Pidgin English - correct answer ✔✔Nigeria, English Hawaiian Creole - correct answer ✔✔based on English Bislama - correct answer ✔✔(Vanuatu) Tok Pisin - correct answer ✔✔expanded pidgin (Papua New Guinea), English Why are pidgins seen as being simplified?; 3 ways this view is wrong - correct answer ✔✔uses vocab and seemingly simplified grammar and phonology of dom lang; seem like you can speak a pidgin by randomly simplifying speech. Pidgins *are
D superstrate, D substrate - correct answer ✔✔Super - donor lang that gives vocab; Sub - all the subordinate langs in the contact situation, subtle effect on grammar. 4 pidgins based on uncommon superstrates - correct answer ✔✔1. Chinook Jargon (North AM Indian Pidgin); 2. Russenorsk (Russian + Norwegian); 3. Pidgin Swahili (E and Central Afr); 4. Bazaar Malay (Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia). Define jargon; 5 characteristics - correct answer ✔✔An 'early pidgin' where meaning is communicated on basis of word meaning and not grammatical organization; physical gestures. Ex - KItchen English used by servants in colonial India. 1. Reduction (grammatical words omitted; grammatical affixes don't have any meaning); 2. Regularization ('is' used as all forms of 'be'); 3. Overgeneralization (overuse of certain features. -ing as all-purpose ending); 4. Reanalysis (words reinterpreted in new ways. Ex - 'been' marks any kind of past tense; -en no longer means plural). 5. Convergence (if superstrate and substrate share a feature, it is maintained in pidgin). Stable pidgins - phonology - correct answer ✔✔5-7 vowels, common consonants. Stable pidgins - vocab - correct answer ✔✔200-300 words. Stable pidgins - polysemy - correct answer ✔✔most words in pidgins have multiple meanings (so there are fewer words that speakers need to know). In Kamtok, 'hia' = hear, sense, understand. Stable pidgins - multi-functionality - correct answer ✔✔one word can be used as many POS. ex - pikin can be a noun or an adj. Stable pidgins - reduplication - correct answer ✔✔repeat a word for emphasis. In Kamtok, big big = huge. Stable pidgins - prepositions - correct answer ✔✔a prep for possession and a prep for location. In Tok Pisin, bilong (possession) and long (location). Stable pidgins - compounds - correct answer ✔✔word formed from two independent words; creates new vocab items; used to create new vocab items (recycling limited
number of words that are available in pidgin, creating new words). Ex - 'big ai' = greedy. Compounding might be more imaginative. Stable pidgins - periphrases - correct answer ✔✔more transparent. first child of Mrs. Queen = nambawan pikinini bilong misis kwin. Stable pidgins - word order - correct answer ✔✔relatively fixed word order (like SVO is favored bc it's the order of the most common superstrates). Jargons have no consistent word order. Stable pidgins - inflection - correct answer ✔✔in superstrate langs, nouns/verbs/adjs add affixes to change meaning (past tense, plural, gender, etc.). But pidgins don't add so many inflections = simplification. Lang patterns in the community once a creole is established - correct answer ✔✔When a creole develops, it is often at the expense of other languages, which then makes it vulnerable to attack by other langs. The main source of vulnerability is with the standard form of the lang from which the creole comes; the standard form has prestige, edu, wealth, and creole speakers are already under pressure to decreolize because their lang is associated with subservience and slavery. 2 consequences of the pressure to decreolize - correct answer ✔✔1. Post-creole continuum (emergence of continuum of varieties of creole speech, each at a varying distance from the standard); 2. Hypercreolization (aggressive reaction against the standard, who push for a pure crole to attain an ethnic identity and claim the superior status of their creole). Where do the speakers of creoles come from? - correct answer ✔✔children of parents who 1. speak a pidgin as a common LF and have diff langs as their L1. Creole - morphology - correct answer ✔✔more affixes. Ex - affix -im makes 'bik' (adj BIG) into 'to make something big' = bikim. Creole - vocab - correct answer ✔✔number of words increases so the creole can be used in more domains.
Korean Bamboo English was used where?; combo of which langs; kinds of sentences it could build; characteristics - correct answer ✔✔demilitarized zone bt North and South Korea bt American Army and indigenous personnel; Korean, Japanese, English. Could talk about situation and response sentences (but not sequence sentences). What KBE shows about pidgins - correct answer ✔✔same syntax as English. Similar vocab words from English - koshi = skosh; simplified verb tense (all present); reduplication (chop chop); periphrasing (MORE TRANSPARENT) (number 1, number 10); 5. Phonological convergence (nevah happen). What kind of support does Eng have in the US? - correct answer ✔✔covert support of Eng as dominant lang. 4 immigrant groups to US - correct answer ✔✔1. Until 1100 BC, no one in the US; tribes migrated to NW between 11000 and 9000 BC from Asia using the Iberian Straight (which ran between Siberia and Alaska); the groups that first entered the US moved Southward as new groups came in; 1.5 Native Americans speaking 300 langsbefore the Europeans came in 1500. 2. West and Northern Europeans in 1500- 1800 (English, French, German in Midland, Russian, Dutch, Spanish). 3. Southern and Eastern Europeans (19th and 20th centuries) - Poland, Jewish, Southern Italians, Greece, Iceland, other areas where there wasn't immigration from before. 4. China/Asia (starting with the Gold Rush, Chinese to CA, Boston, and New York; Japanese on west coast). Major colonizing powers - correct answer ✔✔Eng, Span (Florida, SW, California), German (Midland and Pennsylvania, Portu (elsewhere), French (New Orleans to Detroit to Louisiana). Spanish in California - dominated until what year?; how did CA become part of US?; immigration to CA - correct answer ✔✔dominated in California until the gold rush, when the Spanish became the minority; bc there was maj Eng speakers in CA< no docs in Spa. In 1800s, land was cede to Mexico; then, war bt Mex and US,a nd US won; 1849 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded CA and other states to US. Early policies toward non-Eng langs - attempts to get other langs recognized vs. langs that got privileges - correct answer ✔✔Attempts to have other langs recognized were blocked (even German and French, which had concentrate pops in certain regions...Eng was the lang of the whole nation). Languages that were spoken by the FIRST settlers of any territory were granted some tolerance; when the
pioneers were not L1 Eng speakers, they could use their langs sometimes (special privileges in local laws resulted). Non-Eng langs were seen as intruders - why were they seem as such? - correct answer ✔✔differed from the Anglo-American prototype (white, protestant, Eng- speaking, north Euro), beginning in the 19th century (German immigrants were a threat to English; Catholic Irish threatened protestant Anglo-Americans, poor and Catholic/Eastern Orthodox/Jewish immigrants from east and south Euro). Foreign langs in the classroom - correct answer ✔✔1900 - other langs taught only as foreign subjects. The langs of first wave of immigration (which were more culturally similar to British) - French, German, Dutch, Russian. Meyer v. Nebraska - correct answer ✔✔1923. Crime was that Meyer had tutored student in German after hours. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Meyer and said that the attempt to forbid teaching langs other than Eng prior to 8th grade violated 14th amendment. Ruling was criticized bc didn't really ensure right to bilingual childhood (all it did was give right to adults to teach in foreign lang). Despite this, in WWI, foreign langs could only be taught as subjects in HIGH SCHOOL. Asian immigrants - correct answer ✔✔Chinese - came with Gold Rush of 1849 to Chinatowns in SF, Boston, NY. Japanese - Pacific Coast; Japan created Japanese Asso of America to encourage immigration and assimilation. 1868 - 14th Amendment took away possibility of citizenship for Asians. 1882-1943 - CHinese Exclusion Act (protect econ interest of whites), leading to lang deterioration. 1960s and language policy - sputnik, the new law - correct answer ✔✔1958 - sputnik was launched; US needed to catch up to Russia, so National Defense Education Act (1958) allocated money for study of non-western langs. Language policy towards Cubans - correct answer ✔✔1959: Revolution. Programs developed for L1 Spanish children and bilingual edu for Spanish and English speakers; no designed to convert but make bilingual-functioning children. Bilingual Edu Act - correct answer ✔✔1968, expanded bilingual edu to speakers of all non-Eng languages. BUT, vague in definition of bilingual edu, so many types of programs created and all got funding. Differed from Cuba policy because it taught Spanish literacy to translate into Eng literacy (not exactly maintenance of both).
What US English thinks of bilingual edu - correct answer ✔✔make Eng-only immersion program bc this is how earlier immigrants learned and bilingual edu impedes Eng learning/development. 5 misconceptions US Eng promotes - correct answer ✔✔1. Attempted acquisition of an L2 by a speaker with partially established L1 doesn't work (but actually the partially-established L1 facilitates learning an L2). 2. Recent immigrants DO actually transition to English (2nd generation is monolingual in Eng); 3. Sink or swim immersion programs don't work; 4. Eng-learning programs are actually oversubscribed, and a person can identify with both American and Spanish culture;
- Decay of heritage lang results bc language problems do not allow room for maintenance of heritage land. US Eng exploits gold age of immigration - correct answer ✔✔idea that immigrants willingly gave up their lang is not true. New immigrants ARE NOT welcomed into the melting pot; they acculturate bc pressure. US English at the state level - correct answer ✔✔CA - Prop 63 (1986), got Eng adopted as official lang. Nebraska - 1920 Eng declared off lang. Also in other states. English Empowerment Act - correct answer ✔✔1996, passed in House of representatives but not Senate. 1999 - Amends Federal law to declare English to be the official language of the U.S. Government?? Positive moves to maintain heritage lang - 2 states - correct answer ✔✔Hawaii - English and Hawaiian. 2. New Mexico - English and Spanish were necessary. English Plus - goal - correct answer ✔✔full access to Eng lang edu for non-native speakers of Eng and the maintenance/learning of 2nd langs for anyone who wants it. Many organizations support it; NM, Washington, Oregon, Rhode Island; civil rights groups. Official lang and LF of Mozambique - correct answer ✔✔O - Portu; LF - Swahili. Can the official lang and LF of a state be the same? - correct answer ✔✔Yes. ex - China (Mandarin) and Paraguay (Spanish).
Can a state have the same national and official lang? - correct answer ✔✔Yes - Germany; Singapore (Malay). Can a state only have one national lang? - correct answer ✔✔Can have MORE THAN ONE! Switzerland. Does a nat lang need to be spoken by the majority of the pop in a state? - correct answer ✔✔No. New Zealand. Examples of states with regional official langs - correct answer ✔✔India, Switzerland, Spain. Examples of societally monolingual but personally multilingual state - correct answer ✔✔Paraguay, Mozambique. Example of societally bilingual but personally monolingual state - correct answer ✔✔Canada. Does a nat lang have to have a written form? Off lang? LF? - correct answer ✔✔Official lang. Lang planning in the Philippines - correct answer ✔✔they chose the powerful Tagalog over the populous Cebuano as official alnd and WERE NOT satisfied. Lang planning in Indonesia - correct answer ✔✔Chose Bahasa Indonesia language (ethnically neutral) as nat lang and were satisfied. Indonesia is official lang. Two factors that resulted in dominance of English - correct answer ✔✔population/migration (what people want on their own) and power/policy. Policies to promote bilingualism - correct answer ✔✔coordinated movement against boarding schools (Native Am lang act), national defense edu act, bilingual edu act.
Lang planning in India - correct answer ✔✔Following independence, difficult to promote Hindi as nat lang, so there's no nat land; instead, 14 regional langs are off langs (Hindi and End are also off langs); each state can have its own off lang for use in off domains. Lang planning in USA and Britain - correct answer ✔✔bc majority of pop speakes Eng, not necessary to make Eng a nat or off lang. Lang planning in New Zealand, Sri Lanka, Canada - correct answer ✔✔Eng is off lang for government, though it has not been declared an off lang; Maori is the only lang to be official lang (similar to Sri Lanka's Tamil and Canada's French, where English and French are official langs). Financial costs and lang planning - correct answer ✔✔expensive to have many off langs. Ex - Canada's 2 biggest pops are Eng-speaking and French-speaking, but other pops are nearly as large as the French one, so they are upset about having to pay taxes for French to be used. Lang planning in Quebec - correct answer ✔✔after Quebec was ceded to the British, French farmers got jobs in Quebec government and later in private business. French were upset because English-speakers were all up in their economy, so created Official Langs Act (bilingual country with services in 2 langs; NOT individual bilingualism, thought). Quebec ultimately rejected official bilingualism for Quebec and established French monolingualism with the 1977 Charter of French (French is the ONLY official lang of Quebec). Quebec workers must be able to speak English and French, but Native Canadian Americans can use their native lang. English- speakers haven't been learning French. National bilingual average is 10%, but 60^ of bilinguals are in Quebec. QUebec's request for independence denied in 1995. Nat lang choice in Philippines - correct answer ✔✔difficult choice. Chose Pilipino, but it was based on Tagalog (the most populous and powerful group located in the capital of Manila); other pops were upset. Nat lang choice in Denmark/Somalia - correct answer ✔✔easy choice ***Nat & Off lang choice in Indonesia - correct answer ✔✔It's great that Javanese wasn't proposed a nat lang because it would have been hard to learn; Bahasa Indonesia (form of Malay) was chosen as nat lang bc it was already a lingua franca
in trading, ethnically neutral, and widely accepted. there is a single nat/off lang (Indonesian). LF = Indonesia. Nat lang choice in Africa in general; in Tanzania - correct answer ✔✔In Africa, difficult to select 1 nat lang bc worries about inter-ethnic conflict bt tribes. In Tanzania, single nat lang has been selected successfully (Swahili). In Tanzania, Eng would not have been a good choice bc neg attitudes bc colonization. Swahili was a good choice bc 1. Already spoken as lingua franca and as medium of education (ethnically neutral); 2. Most langs are bantu langs, and so is Swahili (representative and symbol of national unity); 3. Lang identified with independence movement (prestigious). Codifying Swahili began under German rule and then under British (grammar and dictionary); after independence, vocab expanded for use in all domains with borrowings from Eng and Arabic. Four functions of a successful nat lang - correct answer ✔✔1. unifies ; 2. Separates;
- Prestigious (higher status than local dialects and unwritten langs); 4. Functions as a standard (model of speech can be promoted throughout pop). Swahili does all of this, except set Tanzanian people off from others, but Tanzanian Swahili IS slightly diff than other Swahilis. Steps in establishing nat lang (5) - correct answer ✔✔1. Selection; 2. Codification (grammatical rules and dictionary that chooses rules and words/meanings/pronunciations; written form); 3. Lexical expansion (and coin new words); 4. Implementation (spread the new lang through mass/public edu and adult edu campaigns; radio and TV; incentives for workers to speak the lang; propaganda); 5. Acceptance (for a nat lang to be successful, speakers must be positive about it and have pride). D lang planning, corpus planning, status planning - correct answer ✔✔LP - activities which aim at changing lin behavior of a speech community. CP - activities which attempt to chang einternal structure of lang; practices of codification and lexical expansion. SP - efforts to change the use and function of a lang or variety of lang in a particular society; selection of variety as a nat or off lang. 3 types of language planning - correct answer ✔✔1. Official monolingualism (no official recognition of ANY other languages); 2. Linguistic pluralism (acknowledges that societies are many up of many ethno-ling groups and accommodates langs of diff groups in nat/off lang planning; recognizes multiple nat/off langs - ex - Singapore has 4 off langs; Switzerland has German, French, Italian, and Romansh as nat langs; South Africa has Eng, Afrikaans and 9 local Bantu langs as off langs; India has 22 off langs). 3. Linguistic assimilation (belief that everyone should speak and
