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Patho Module 1 Study Guide Exam Latest Update, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Pathology

Virginia State University (VSU)Pathology

Patho Module 1 Study Guide Exam Latest Update

Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research

2023/2024

Available from 07/12/2024

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Patho Module 1 Study Guide Exam Latest Update
1.Pathophysiology: the study of the body's response to altered function or disease
2.pathology: study of the structural and functional changes that occur in cells, tissues, and
organs of the body as a result of disease processes
- Greek "pathos": diseasea
3.physiology: The study of body function
4.WHO definition of health: a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
5.US Department of Health definition of health: 1. attain lives free of preventable disease,
disability, injury, and premature death
2.achieve health equity and eliminate disparities
3.promote good health for all
4.promote healthy behaviors across lifespan
6.disease: an illness leading to abnormal physiological function of an organ, body structure, or
an entire system
-can be born with it or acquire it
7.disease process includes: etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes, clini- cal
manifestations, diagnosis, and the clinical course
8.etiological factors: causes of disease
-physical forces: burns, trauma
-chemical agents: poisons, alcohol
-biological agents: bacteria, viruses
-genetic predisposition
-nutritional excess/deficiency
9.risk factors: predispose someone to a given disease
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Patho Module 1 Study Guide Exam Latest Update

1. Pathophysiology: the study of the body's response to altered function or disease

2. pathology: study of the structural and functional changes that occur in cells, tissues, and

organs of the body as a result of disease processes

  • Greek "pathos": diseasea

3. physiology: The study of body function

4. WHO definition of health: a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

5. US Department of Health definition of health: 1. attain lives free of preventable disease,

disability, injury, and premature death

2.achieve health equity and eliminate disparities

3.promote good health for all

4.promote healthy behaviors across lifespan

6. disease: an illness leading to abnormal physiological function of an organ, body structure, or

an entire system

- can be born with it or acquire it

7. disease process includes: etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes, clini- cal

manifestations, diagnosis, and the clinical course

8. etiological factors: causes of disease

- physical forces: burns, trauma

- chemical agents: poisons, alcohol

- biological agents: bacteria, viruses

- genetic predisposition

- nutritional excess/deficiency

9. risk factors: predispose someone to a given disease

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  • congenital: present at birth
  • acquired: occur after birth

10. congenital risk factors: present at birth

  • hereditary and/or environmental factors

11. acquired risk factors: occur after birth

  • physical injury, exposure to infectious agents, dietary deficiencies or excesses

12. pathogenesis: development of a disease process

  • the initial contact with the etiological agent all the way through the cellular and tissue level impacts

13. morphology: structure of cells or tissues

14. morphological changes: gross and microscopic changes that are characteris- tic to a given

disease

15. histology: the study of cells at the tissue level

16. legion: pathologic or traumatic injury of an organ or tissue

17. clinical manifestations: the ways diseases present themselves

  • seen and heard through physical examinations and patient history
  • signs and symptoms
  • can be manifestations of the disease or body's attempt to compensate in presence of pathological condition
  • complications, syndrome, sequelae

18. signs: objective manifestation

  • can be seen/measured by the observer
  • fever, edema of extremity or joint, changes in pupil size

19. symptoms: subjective complaint

  • pain, difficulty breathing, dizziness

4 / 18 sions

  • subacute: not as severe or prolonged as acute or chronic

33. epidemiology: the study of disease occurrence in human populations

  • how the travel around the world effects the spread
  • how to control them
  • effectiveness and future methods of healthcare

34. disease frequency: a measurement used to predict whether a disease is on the rise or in

decline

  • disease case: can either be an existing case or the number of new episodes of an illness

35. prevalence: the number of people with the disease in a population in a given time

  • calculated by the number of existing cases by the current population
  • always reported as rates (cases per 100)

36. incidence: the number of new cases in a population at risk during a specified time

  • population at risk: the people without the disease who are at risk of developing it
  • calculated by dividing the number of new cases by the population at risk
  • always reported as rates (cases per 100)

37. morbidity: the effect of an illness on one's life

38. mortality: statistics that deal with the cause of death in a population

  • categorized by age, sex, race, ethnicity

39. natural history of a disease: the progression of that particular disease when no treatment is

provided

  • for formulation of effective treatment plans

40. prognosis: the predicted outcome and likelihood of recovery from a disease

  • anticipated survival time, potential complications, risk of treatment, patients per- sonal health and social history

41. disease prevention categories: primary prevention secondary

prevention

5 / 18 tertiary prevention

42. primary prevention: attempts to eliminate risk factors in order to prevent dis- ease from

occurring

  • taking a daily multivitamin
  • community level

43. secondary prevention: aims to detect and treat disease early, while it's asymp- tomatic and

curable

  • going to the doctor for annual Pap smear to detect early cervical cancer
  • health care setting under physician

44. tertiary prevention: occurs after a diagnosis has been made and clinical inter- vention is

needed to reduce complications/deterioration

  • prescribed medication after heart attack to reduce risk of future event or death
  • occurs in healthcare system with interdisciplinary team of health care professionals

45. evidence based practice: the conscientious reliance on Curren test, scientific evidence in

making decisions regarding the care of individual patients

46. clinical practice guidelines: algorithms and written directives aimed to inform practitioners

on how to best deliver health care in certain circumstances

47. cross-sectional studies: simultaneous collection of information to classify ex- posure and

outcome status

  • compare prevalence of a disease with exposure to an etiological factor versus non- exposure to that same factor

48. case-control studies: compare case subjects to control subjects

49. cohort studies: groups of people born approximately at the same time and/or who share

the same characteristics of interest

  • longitudinal study

50. cell: smallest functional unit of life

  • functional components: nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm

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58. cytoplasm: where most cellular functions are carried out

  • solution containing water, electrolytes, proteins, fats, and glycogen molecules
  • organelles within: ribosomes, ER, Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes

59. ribosomes: site of protein synthesis

60. endoplasmic reticulum (ER): system of interconnected membranes and flat vesicles that

connect various parts of the cell

  • transports substances throughout the cell
  • two regions: smooth and rough

61. rough ER: carries ribosomes (rough appearance)

  • synthesizes lysosomal enzymes
  • digestive enzymes from pancreas and plasma proteins from liver cells both made in rough ER

62. smooth ER: does not carry ribosomes (smooth appearance)

  • lipids, lipoproteins, and steroid hormones made
  • has enzymes that synthesize lipid molecules, regulates intracellular calcium, metabolize and detoxify certain hormones and drugs

63. damage to ER: - if proteins accumulate faster than can be processed -> and if cell can't slow

down production to restore homeostasis --> inflammation and cell death can occur

  • multiple diseases linked: inflammatory bowel disease, myositis, genetic form of diabetes mellitus

64. Golgi apparatus/complex: composed of stacks of thin, flattened vesicles or sacs

  • take substances produced in ER, modify them, package them into secretory granules or vesicles

65. lysosomes: digestive capacity of cell-metabolism of certain substances

  • small sacs contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down cell excess, worn cellular components and foreign substances -lysosomal enzymes: acid hydrolyses, require acidic environment

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  • break down phagocytoses material by heterophagy to autophagy

66. lysosomal storage diseases: specific lysosomal enzyme is absent or inactive

  • results in inability to digest certain cellular substances leading to potentially toxic accumulation within the cell
  • tay-sachs and glycogen storage disease

67. heterophagy: digestion of a substance phagocytosed from outside the cell

  • cell membrane folds inward taking external materials into cell to form phagosome
  • primary lysosomes fuse with phagosome to form secondary lysosome
  • used by neutrophils and macrophages (WBCs)

68. autophagy: digestion of damaged cellular organelles that lysosome must re- move for cell

to continue proper function

  • cells undergoing atrophy
  • secondary lysosomes break down proteins, carbs, and lipids
  • those not able to be broken down remain in cytoplasm as residual bodies and leave cell via exocytosis

69. peroxisomes: smaller than lysosomes, aid in control of free radicals

  • contain an enzyme that breaks down peroxides
  • w/o them, highly unstable chemical compounds would damage other cytoplasmic molecules
  • break down hydrogen peroxide into water, long chain fatty acids, and form bile acids

70. proteasome: small organelles made of protein complexes that are also involved in the

breakdown of proteins

  • target mis informed proteins/polypeptide chains that don't meet quality control

71. mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell

  • transform organic compounds into cellular energy
  • number proportional to activity of cell, higher in muscle cells

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80. thin microfilaments: thin actin filaments in muscle

81. intermediate microfilaments: diameter between thick and thin

  • maintain support and shape of cell
  • epidermal keratinocytes

82. thick microfilaments: found in muscle cells, muscle contraction is cross bridg- ing between

thick and thin

83. neurofibrillary tangle: disruption of the microtubule protein and neurofilaments

  • Alzheimers

84. plasma (cell) membrane: semipermeable membrane that separates the inter- cellular

contents of the cell from the extracellular environment

  • regulates movement of materials in and out of cell
  • aids in regulation of cell growth and division
  • houses hormone receptors that facilitate conduction of electrical currents in nerve and muscle cells

85. structure of cell membrane: comprised of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates to form active

and fluid structure

  • lipid bilayer made of phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol
  • phospholipids have hydrophilic (water soluble) head and hydrophobic (water insol- uble) tail

86. integral proteins: transmembrane proteins

  • span lipid bilayer
  • transport molecule across lipid bilayer

87. peripheral proteins: found on one side of membrane and don't pass through

  • receptors and intracellular signaling systems

88. glycocalyx: cell coat

  • fuzzy layer surrounding cell surface
  • complex carb chains attached to protein or lipid molecules that penetrate outside portion of membrane

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  • cell to cell recognition and adhesion

89. lectins: carbohydrate binding proteins associated with cell coat

  • antitumor, antifungal, immunomodulatory, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory processes

90. cell signaling: tightly regulated system of transmitting information between cells

91. endocrine signaling: hormones carried in the bloodstream to act on cells throughout

the body

92. paracrine signaling: enzymes metabolize chemical mediators, producing a change in

neighboring cells

93. autocrine signaling: cell releases a chemical into the extracellular fluid that affects its

own activity

94. synaptic signaling: neurotransmitters act on adjacent nerve cells through synapses

(small gaps between nerve cells)

95. receptor activation: cell receptors receive signals from either inside or outside the cell, signal

generates a events that lead to physical response

96. first messengers: primary messengers

neurotransmitters, steroids, protein hormones, growth factors, chemical messen- gers

97. secondary messengers: when primary are insufficient, secondary act

  • additional intracellular mechanisms employed by the cell to achieve physiological response
  • can change shape which dictates function

98. protein kinases: enzymes that change protein shape through phosphorylation

99. down and up regulation: - down regulation: too many chemical messengers present, so

number decreases

  • up regulation: messenger lacking so receptors increase

100. G-protein linked receptors: largest in number

  • ligand binding extracellular receptor
  • on/off switch to convert external signals (first messengers) to internal signals (second

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104. electrochemical gradient: difference of charged particles or ions and number of

particles and ions on different sides of a membrane

105. diffusion: molecules move from high to low concentration

  • rates increase if small pores or high temperatures
  • oxygen, alcohol, carbon dioxide, fatty acids

106. osmosis: diffusion of water from low solute to high solute

  • moves through channels called aquaporins

107. osmotic pressure: pressure created by water when it moves through mem- branes

108. facilitated diffusion: use of transport protein to help lipid insoluble or large

molecules pass through membrane

  • glucose

109. ion channels: transport electrical charged ions through facilitated diffusion using

these channels

  • made of integral proteins that span width of membrane
  • only allow ions they are matched to

110. active transport: cells use energy to move ions AGAINST electrical or chem- ical

gradient

  • sodium potassium pump: moves sodium from inside to out and potassium outside to in
  • if sodium stayed in, cell would swell

111. primary active transport: ATP used directly to transport substance

112. secondary active transport: energy is derived from the primary transport of one

substance to be used to transport another

113. cotransport: symport

  • consist of sodium ions and the solute being transported in same direction

114. counter transport: antiport

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  • sodium ions and solute being transported in opposite directions
  • intestine with glucose and amino acid absorption paired with sodium transport

115. endocytosis: molecule outside of cell enclosed in invagination of cell mem- brane

forming a vesicle inside cell

  • pinocytosis and phagocytosis

116. pinocytosis: cell drinking

  • engulfs small solid or fluid particles such as proteins and electrolytes

117. phagocytosis: cell eating

  • membrane engulfs and then kills microorganisms or other particulate matter
  • particle enclosed, phagosome forms, move into cytoplasm, join with lysosome to be destroyed

118. exocytosis: secretes intracellular substances into the extracellular space

  • removing cellular debris and releasing hormones

119. membrane potential: the voltage difference across a membrane

120. electrical potential: ability of separated electrical charges of opposite polarity to do

work

121. potential difference: difference between separated charges

122. resting membrane potential: accumulation of the ions on the surface of the

membrane

123. diffusing potential: the voltage generated by ions that diffuse across the cell

membrane

124. equilibrium potential: diffusion and electrical forces are balanced on both sides of

the membrane

125. tissues: the collective organization of many cells with similar origin and/or

function

126. epithelial tissue: covers body outer surface, lines the inner surfaces, forms

glandular tissue

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  • result of disease, nutritional or oxygen deprivation, aging
  • decrease in cell number or cell size

135. hypertrophy: increase in size of organ or tissue due to increase in size of cells that

comprise it

  • increase in workload=increase in size
  • increase in protein synthesis
  • enlargement of left ventricle in heart disease

136. hyperplasia: increase in size of organ or tissue caused by an increase in the number

cells making up that organ and tissue

  • glandular proliferation in breast tissue during pregnancy
  • can be in conjunction with hypertrophy

137. metaplasia: replacement of one differentiated tissue by another

  • response to chronic irritation and inflammation
  • higher likelihood of survival in less than optimal environment
  • Barret esophagus

138. dysplasia: abnormal cellular growth resulting in cells that vary in size, shape, and

organization

  • proliferation of precancerous cells
  • cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)
  • reversible with alleviation of inciting stress
  • can result in carcinoma

139. injury from physical agents: mechanical forces

  • burns, bone fractures

140. injury from biological agents: viruses, parasites, bacteria

141. chemical injuries: drug toxicities, carbon tetrachloride, lead toxicity, mercury toxicity

142. radiation injuries: result of ionizing (cancer treatment), ultraviolet (sunburn), non

17 / 18 ionizing (thermal burns)

143. injury from nutritional imbalances: nutrient excess or deficiency

144. three types of injury to cells: free radical injury, hypoxia, disruption of intra- cellular

calcium homeostasis

145. free radicals: highly reactive chemical species with unpaired electron in outer orbit

  • unstable so can disrupt and damage cells
  • reactive oxygen species(ROS): oxygen containing molecules that include free radicals and nonradicals
  • oxidative stress: generation of ROS exceeds body ability to neutralize and eliminate them (cancer, ALS)

146. antioxidants: molecules that inhibit the reactions of ROS

  • enzymes (catalase), nonmetal elements, metals (zinc), vitamins (A,C and E)

147. hypoxic cell injury: low oxygen delivery to the tissues

  • impairs oxidative metabolism, decreased production of ATP
  • leads to cellular damage as metabolic processes can't be carried out
  • caused by anemia, ischemia, carbon monoxide poisoning, decreased perfusion of tissues, poor oxygenation of blood,
  • brain cells irreversible damage after 4-6 minutes

148. calcium: second messenger

  • intracellular levels lower than extracellular
  • rise of intracellular inappropriately activates enzymes

149. apoptosis: programmed cell death

  • eliminates cells that are worn out, produced in excess, developed improperly, or are genetically damaged

150. four functions of apoptosis: 1. separation of webbed toes and fingers in embryo