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Comparative Sociology, Apuntes de Sociología

Sociología Comparada - Comparative Sociology

Tipo: Apuntes

2018/2019

Subido el 30/11/2019

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COMPARATIVE+SOCIOLOGY+
!
UNIT%1%
What is sociology?
Sociology is the scientific discipline that describes and explains the relationship
between social structures and individual actions and ideas. Sociology can empower us
by helping citizens (1) identify points of intervention and (2) raise new issues of debate.
Its subject matter is our own behaviour as social beings.
“Our individual lives reflect the context of our social experience”.
What is sociological imagination?
Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills) is the ability of the mind to identify visible
and less-visible links between social structures* and personal troubles. Its task is to
grasp history and biography and the relationships between the two within society.
Social life is better understood when we disentangle these two elements:
-!Personal troubles: Situations that threaten the values of an individual. Personal
experiences turn into personal troubles if they are inconsistent with dominant
values in a determined society.
“Ours is a time of uneasiness and indifference” (Wright Mills)
-!Social issues: Central structures of society. Most persistent regularities that lie at
the basis of social life organization. These are made out of the overlap of
personal social networks. They could be institutions, social structures, social
norms… E.g. Capitalism, consumerism
Sociological imagination requires overcoming important intellectual hurdles such as
abstract thinking and introspection or fighting against intellectual inertia, but the promise
it makes compensates the challenges it entails.++
Attaining more Sociological imagination produces two main positive effects:
-!Explanatory effect: we gain a better understanding of the meaning of our lives and
so, can better account for major personal events. It helps, for instance, avoid social
contexts that produce problems.
-!Socio-political effect: thanks to this, sociologists can have a major impact in
transforming the social issues that are a matter of attention by public opinion.
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COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGY

UNIT 1

What is sociology?

Sociology is the scientific discipline that describes and explains the relationship

between social structures and individual actions and ideas. Sociology can empower us

by helping citizens (1) identify points of intervention and (2) raise new issues of debate.

Its subject matter is our own behaviour as social beings.

“Our individual lives reflect the context of our social experience”.

What is sociological imagination?

Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills) is the ability of the mind to identify visible

and less-visible links between social structures* and personal troubles. Its task is to

grasp history and biography and the relationships between the two within society.

Social life is better understood when we disentangle these two elements:

- Personal troubles: Situations that threaten the values of an individual. Personal

experiences turn into personal troubles if they are inconsistent with dominant

values in a determined society.

“Ours is a time of uneasiness and indifference” (Wright Mills)

- Social issues: Central structures of society. Most persistent regularities that lie at

the basis of social life organization. These are made out of the overlap of

personal social networks. They could be institutions, social structures, social

norms… E.g. Capitalism, consumerism

Sociological imagination requires overcoming important intellectual hurdles such as

abstract thinking and introspection or fighting against intellectual inertia, but the promise

it makes compensates the challenges it entails.

Attaining more Sociological imagination produces two main positive effects:

- Explanatory effect: we gain a better understanding of the meaning of our lives and

so, can better account for major personal events. It helps, for instance, avoid social

contexts that produce problems.

- Socio-political effect: thanks to this, sociologists can have a major impact in

transforming the social issues that are a matter of attention by public opinion.

Sociological imagination is best attained by classic sociologists: Marx, Weber, Durkheim.

Taking both history and biography seriously improves our Sociological imagination.

  • Sensitivity to biography: Humans have in common personal milestones that can

be compared and contrasted. They offer openings to “human diversity”. This

diversity reveals points of association between troubles/structures.

  • Sensitivity to history: Long-range perspectives of social change help recognize

social structures and societal specificities.

Types of social structures

Social structures* are stable patters of social relationship with a concrete objective.

These are charged with social norms and cultural meaning. We can identify three levels

of social structures (Brym and Lie):

  • Microstructures: patterns of intimate social relationships. Made through face-to-

face interactions. E.g. family, friends

  • Macrostructures: Relationships that lie outside and above the circle of intimates

and acquaintances. Mainly relations between actors in the same nation-state.

These macrostructures tend to differ across nations. E.g. Patriarchy

  • Global structures: International relations, international exchanges between

countries and individuals. E.g. ‘Global culture’

-­‐ Marx: capitalism influences the social life

-­‐ Webber: bureaucratization: the constant increase of rules, norms, regularization

in order to increase efficiency* (*understanding efficiency as controlling

individuals as much as possible)

-­‐ Durkheim: Division of labor = Constant expansion of specialization in a

competitive world. It leads to individualism.

The preference for national-level reinforced after FWW and SWW thanks to:

-­‐ Perception of cultural and economic divergence

-­‐ Second world war and miopolarity of world order

-­‐ De-colonization

-­‐ Technological advances

-­‐ Generalization of survey research

Comparative sociology elements of distinctiveness:

1. Comparative sociology is multilevel. More than one level of analysis is possible,

and the units of observation are identifiable by name at each of these levels

(Teune).

Individual >> Aggregate group >> Nation-state

2. It uses nation-state characteristics as the most common explanatory factor.

Comparative sociology describes and explains similarities and differences in

characteristics across countries.

Why does the nation-state prevalence as the explanatory unit?

The nation-state is a political community with sovereignty over a territory and a shared

cultural identity. It is the explanatory unit of comparative sociology because:

a. Society and State were conceived, organized and experienced as coextensive

(Beck).

b. It has powerful capacity to homogenize and produce ‘inwardness’

(introspection). State is the political unit with largest authority. It controls the

use of violence and so controls society too by coercing population by the

educational system, the legal system, bureaucracy and public infrastructure.

c. National identification. It creates an invisible bond and basis of trust. This

homogenizes worldviews and behaviours (E.g. use of language).

d. Nation-states follow their own path of development, in a way in which early

conditions affect future events. Early conditions affect substantially future

events. Moreover, nation-states differ widely in endowments.

Nation-states display substantial within-country similarities and cross-country

differences. As an explanatory unit, it achieves maximum internal uniformity and

external differentiation.

Two main ways of conducting comparative sociology:

Comparative sociology considers high-level features to explain lower-level outcomes.

We have to distinguish between observational units (entities) and explanatory units

e.g. GDP per capita >> the addition of individual incomes/population.

Comparative analysis of societies is comprised of two kinds of statements.

-­‐ Comparative sociology cross-cases/cross-system/cross-countries: compares

different nation-states to study their similarities and differences

-­‐ Comparative sociology cross-level: is a double-step comparison. You compare

the similarities and differences from two different social groups between

different state-nations. E.g. The differences between women and men in Spain

and Canada. 1st level: comparison between men and women / 2nd level:

comparison between Spain and Canada.

D. Vision of society: it is a mutually dependent set of institutions or areas of social

reality that fit together and contribute to the general stability of society.

*Rules are prescriptive (formal or informal) statements about desirable behaviour.

Rules matter because they produce stability and predictability. Rules are bundled into

culture (deep-seated attitudes that condition all our actions and thoughts).

There are two types of rules:

1. Roles: rules linked to particular socio-structural positions e.g. lawyers: logical,

analytical.

2. Values: they are generalized rules or assumptions, approved ways of living or acting.

Moral statements about how we should act, feel… They are nothing more than “Long-

term orientations”. They are shared by institutions such as the family. E.g. tolerance.

Rules operate at multiple levels of reality (worldwide, nationwide, particular

cases…). Rules matter for individual behaviour by socialization ; with socialization we

make ours the rules implemented by society and behave according to them (socialization

= internalization). Rules don’t act independently from individuals; they matter because

they affect social reality by affecting individuals. They shape worldviews.

CONSEQUENCES of culture acquisition and socialization:

  • (^) Behavioural consistency: similar socialization leads to the internalization of similar

rules, which leads to similar mental structures, and finally to uniformity.

Similar socialization >> similar rules >> similar mental structures >> uniformity

  • (^) Institutional preservation: values transmit norms linked to each institution. Values are

“functional”: they meet social needs e.g. military institution produces security.

-­‐ The conflict approach or conflict theory.

They claim that social rules aren’t the only possible constrains; socio-economic

inequalities also produce constrains. Since all societies display large inequalities,

advantaged and disadvantaged groups are clearly distinguishable.

Goods and opportunities are unequally distributed: some groups benefit more than others

from the existence of a particular set of rules. Groups are aware of such inequalities and

react to it.

MAIN PRINCIPLES:

A. It focuses on macro-level structures.

B. Large social groups have different endowments.

C. Individuals and groups pursue their self-interest.

D. They talk about zero-sum relationships: situation in which somebody wins and

somebody loses. It generates conflict.

E. Dominant groups have the resources and the ability to achieve social stability.

F. Vision of society: sum of groups with unequal* capacities. They argue that,

reducing privilege, welfare would be expanded.

*TYPES of inequality:

Several types matter. Income inequalities is what first come to mind, but there are also

inequalities between ethnic groups, genders, regional origin or age groups.

There is inequality when one group holds disproportionate amount of highly valued assets

(financial (capitalism), political (communism), educational (modernity), social

connections (modernity), etc. ).

There is an assumption of rationality; individuals are informed about their structural

position and value restricted assets. Assess have cost-benefit effects of different

alternatives. Inequality means that objective self-interest varies across group. This

generates conflict. Conflicts are pervasive: they can be overt (elections) or covert

(undiscussed elements).

Production of social order

ü Use of sheer violence or coercion.

ü Formalization of rules favourable to privileged actors

ü Manipulation of values by dominant groups.

ü Coordination costs for dominated groups.

Production of social change:

ü Adaptation to environmental changes by dominant groups.

ü Organized mobilization by subordinated groups e.g. social revolutions.

For both approaches values are important. The origin of those values are the institutions,

and above them are the dominant groups. So, values come from dominant groups.

They are both macro-level approaches. In consensus theory, the values reside in the

nation-state. In the conflict theory, the values reside in the hierarchy of society, not only

on the group the individual belong to.

SCIENTIFIC - Sociological Research

Scientific production involves the use of two types of strategies or tools:

(1) The scientific method: The research cycle

(2) Scientific techniques: The implementation of strategies related to case selection, data

collection and/or data analysis.

  • Sociological research - (1) The scientific method

It is a cyclical process that involves 6 steps:

1. Formulate a research question.

2. Review existing literature.

3. Select the technique that will be used (experiment, survey, etc.).

4. Collect data.

5. Analyse that data.

6. Report results so they can be useful in future new and more sophisticated

researches.

The aim of science is to minimize methodological problems such as those that flourish

from the relationship between:

-­‐ Concepts and their indicators >> How to stablish the variables of the subject of

interest.

-­‐ Indicators and values >> How to measure >> Operationalization

-­‐ Findings and social reality

Thus, to maximize the scientific value of a researching project these concepts are equally

important:

1. Reliability. “Would another researcher interpret or measure this in the same

way?”. Reliability is the degree to which a measurement procedure yields

consistent results. We reach this reliability by repeating the measurement

procedure and obtaining the same result.

2. Validity: “Are the researcher’s interpretations accurate?”. Validity is the degree

to which a measure actually measures what it is intended to measure. All valid

measures are reliable but not all reliable measures are valid. (E.g. It does not

matter how many times you measure how large is your right foot if what you are

interested in the study of economic growth in Spain).

3. Generalizability: Generalizability is the degree to which findings can be

generalized. “Do the research findings apply beyond the specific case

examined?”. If the answer is yes, generalizability exists. It is needed both validity

and reliability.

4. Causality: Cause and effect relations among variables.

  • Sociological research: Scientific techniques - Data collection methods

Data collection methods are research techniques used to construct scientific evidence:

  • Field methods. It doesn’t imply participation nor interaction with the subjects

examined, just observation of their behaviours. It normally involves classifying

and counting behaviour of interests with predetermined schemas through detached

observation. This technique produces objective, quantitative indicators of

variations in human practices.

PROBLEMS:

(1) The risk of Reactivity: the presence of the researcher affects subjects’ behaviour.

(2) The meaning of the observed behaviour is not clear. Because that, Field Methods are

not commonly utilized in sociology.

  • Participant Observation : This is one of the main sociological methods. It is a

qualitative technique in which the researcher observes the research participants

and engages with their activities. It requires social integration and taking objective

notes. It commonly means adopting a common social role interested in studying.

Participant observation permits linking objective conditions and subjective

consequences, and reveals the relationship between personal experiences and the

meaning given to reality. The aim of this method is to discover the subjects’ view

of the world in its full complexity. However, issues of validity, reliability,

generalizability and causality make participant observation less useful to some

research purposes, since the researcher could be influenced by the environment.

PROBLEMS:

(1) Risk of reactivity.

(2) It is a highly demanding technique (it requires a lot of time to gain subjects’

confidence.

(3) The researcher could be influenced by the environment and, as a result, give a less

objective description of reality.

  • Experiments : An experiment is a carefully controlled artificial situation that

allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects. This

is a common technique in social psychology. Experiments use a special procedure

called randomization. This implies (a) selecting individuals, (b) assigning them to

groups by chance and then (c) introducing the independent variable to only one

of the groups to (d) compare the outcome for the experimental/treatment group

with the control group. Experiments allow researchers isolate a single cause of

theoretical interest.

PROBLEMS:

(1) Low generalizability.

(2) Although experiments are high reliable, they are low valid since they are highly

artificial situations.

Concepts related:

1. Experimental/treatment group*: In an experiment is the group exposed to the

independent variable.

2. Control group*: Is the group that is not exposed to the independent variable.

3. Independent variable*: Is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

4. Dependent variable: Is the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.

THE CHALLENGE OF ATTRIBUTING CAUSALITY

Conditions to attribute causality:

1. Time order >> Chronological position: the cause is before the effect, not on the

contrary.

2. Association >> Co-variation: An association exists between two variables if the

value of one of them (dependent) changes with the value of the other

(independent).

3. Rationale >> Clearly demarcated mechanism.

4. Non-spuriousness >> The association should be Non-spurious.

Spurious association: A spurious association exists between two variables that seems to

be associated when the introduction of a causally prior control variable/control factor (a

constant variable) makes that association disappear. If with the introduction of this control

variable, the association remains, it would be a non-spurious association, it means that

the relationship between the variables is causal.

To analyse whether or not exist spurious association, we can use a Contingency table: It

is a cross-classification of cases by at least two variables that allows you to see how, if at

all, the variables are associated.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

A research design is an analytical strategy pursued to solve a formal question. An

important step when doing the research is how to make the selection of countries that

we are going to compare. There are 3 different designs:

-­‐ Most similar system designs (MSS)

-­‐ Most different systems designs (MDS)

-­‐ All-encompassing design

(1) MSS design

It is the most common approach to small-N research. It compares systems that are as

similar as possible, except on the outcome of interest, in order to maximize the causal

precision between the concepts studied. It assumes that differences occur among similar

systems: If one factor is different between cases and the outcome is also different, this

factor will probably be the cause for the outcome.

If such differences are found among the countries studied, this means that:

1. The factors that are common to the countries are irrelevant in determining the

behavior explained.

2. Any set of variables that differentiates these countries in a manner corresponding

to the observed differences of behavior can be considered as explaining these

patterns of behavior” (Przeworski & Tenure).

(2) MDS designs

It compares cases that are as different as possible, except on the outcome of interest,

which has to be the same. Causal weight is given to intra-system elements instead of to

inter-system elements. It is a form of cross-level study, since it seeks to identify if an

internal relationship is consistent across systems. If one factor is the same between cases

and the outcome is also the same, this is our probable cause for the outcome.

The most different systems designs eliminate factors differentiating social systems by

formulating statements that are valid regardless of the systems within which observations

are made. As long as these statements continue to be true in all systems, no reference to

systemic characteristics is made.

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Sexism

Female labor force participation

Source: Author's calculations, World Values Survey Figure 2A: Relationship % thinking that if job are scarce men should have more right than women and female labor participation, 2014

UNIT 5

Comparative Demography

WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT DEMOGRAPHY?

Demography is not part of sociology, but is a helpful subject to understand society. The

demographic outlook is a structural feature of any society. It involves deeply entrenched

relations between generations and groups, along with recurrent patterns. It also has

intimately linked to personal problems.

Changes in the population composition reflect changes in life decisions (reproduction,

nuptiality) and have important electoral (due to age) and economic effects (more

population>better economy), as well as effects in public policy.

THE SCIENCE OF DEMOGRAPHY

Demography is the study of population. To be precise, it is the analysis of the volume,

geographical distribution and composition of the population, its changes and the elements

of such changes (fertility, mortality, geographical movements and social mobility).

It was only in the 17th century when societies started to see the groups of individuals as

population (it was the time when the state-nation emerged > Population is an invention

of modernity), focusing in its size and structure. Censuses emerged to help the state

allocate resources since in order to do that, they needed to know the composition of the

population).

BASIC CONCEPTS IN DEMOGRAPHY

Population size is an outcome of three elements: fertility, mortality and migrations.

o Population = Pob.t- 1 + *(Births – Deaths) + **(Immigrants – Emigrants)

o *(Births – Deaths) = Natural population increase

o **(Immigrants – Migrants) = Net migration

o Mortality rate: Deaths per 1,000 people.

o Life expectancy: Number of years a new-born (or someone at a certain age) is

expected to live.

o Crude birth rate (CBR): Number of births per 1,000 women.

o Total fertility rate (TFR): The average number of children a hypothetical group of

women would have at the end of their reproductive period if they were subject

during their whole lives to the fertility rates of a given period and if they were not

subject to mortality. It is expressed as children per woman.

Demographers use rates in order to have comparable results (the size of the population

doesn´t affect the result).

COMMON PATTERNS (In Western European countries )

o Very-long-term population increase

o Long-term decline in mortality rates and fertility rates

o Shift in world population balance

o Increase in life expectancy

o Below-replacement decline of fertility rates

o Population aging (a process by which the average age of a population is

increasing; in other words, the relative weigh of old people in a population is

growing. The main cause is the decreasing birth rates).

CROSS-NATIONAL DIFFERENCES

o Long-term decline in mortality rates and fertility rates appeared earlier in

Northern and Western Europe than anywhere else.

o Particularly large increase in life expectancy in Southern Europe.

o Stronger decline in fertility rates in Southern Europe and Central Europe.

o Population aging is more intense in Southern and Central Europe.

POPULATION GROWTH

Causes of Population Growth: Mainly Changes in Fertility and Mortality Rates:

o Malthus claims there was an overpopulation problem : population grows

geometrically while “subsistence” (food) grows arithmetically.

o Marx argued that the bourgeoisie encouraged high fertility so as to have a

larger number of workers , which would result in lower wages and higher

profits.

o The eugenic models thought that the overpopulation problem only affected some

“races”.

o The demographic transition theory (DTT) is the main explanation (although it

is not an explanatory theory). It claims that all countries have undergone a process

of “demographic modernization”. This modernization is defined by a transition

from high mortality and fertility rates to low mortality and fertility rates. There

are four main stages:

FERTILITY DECLINE SINCE SWW

Fertility is the greatest source of unease regarding European demographics. Its main

indicator is the Total Fertility Rate. When the TFR is under 2.1, the generational

replacement is not granted (sub-replacement fertility).

There was a slow decline in the TFR from the 17th century to the 1950´s. From that period

onwards, the decline stopped in the USA, but it continued in Europe. This has had strong

consequences in demographic, economic and political terms, resulting in an important

gap in the relative weight of young groups between USA and Europe.

European countries have arrived at the ‘very low fertility state’ in different decades:

Northern-Western and central countries between the 1960´s and the 1970´s, Southern

Europe in the 1980´s and Eastern Europe in the 1990´s. Currently there are important

differences within countries: There is a recovery in the TFR in Scandinavia and France,

while Germany (as the most outstanding example) and Southern and Eastern Europe

maintain very low TFR.

Moreover, there is a fertility deficit in most European countries: there is a substantial gap

between the number of desired/wanted children and the ones people have.

But, why have fertility rates fallen so much in Europe? On the one hand, due to changing

habits: the delay in marriage age and first births or the lower nuptiality. On the other hand,

it is related to the economic conditions: slow economic growth, high unemployment rates

and not a very high participation of women in the labour force. There are also other

reasons such as the education expansion and the government policies destined to

childcare.

MORTALITY DECLINE SINCE SWW

The decline in mortality is an important success of European countries. It affects life

expectancy rates positively. Yet, Spain, Poland and other Mediterranean and Eastern

European countries still have to catch up with the rest of Europe. The cases of Spain and

Italy are particularly remarkable. The most important life expectancy gains have been at

old ages (more than 80 years old). In addition, mortality rates are consistently lower

among women. This is linked to their lifestyle (which is usually healthier), working hours

and social integration.

The decline in the mortality rate has two steps. First, it is caused by a decline in child

mortality. Afterwards, by a decline in adult mortality: there had been a decrease in

circulatory and infectious diseases. As we have said before, there are important gender

differences: men have a 5% higher likelihood to die younger than women. Moreover, the

gender gap in life expectancy is widening. However, the old USSR countries are an

exception: male life expectancy decline in Russia between 1990 and 2005.

AGE STRUCTURE: TOWARDS POPULATION AGING

Age structure of population changes only when (if other factors are stable):

1. Fertility rates or mortality rates decrease (aging).

2. Fertility rates or mortality increases (rejuvenation).

In the case of population aging, older age groups experience gains in their relative weight

in the population.

All of these can be observed in Europe, where there has been a dramatic change in the

age structure. The pyramid shape structure has evolved from a pear shape first and

a cylinder shape later, to an inverted pear shape.

Three factors are at the heart of Europe’s ageing society: first, in the second half of the

20th century, life expectancy increased significantly; second, in the decades since the

baby boom of the 1950s and 1960s, birth rates have fallen noticeably; and, third, the baby

boomers are now in the final years of their working lives and will soon leave the

workforce

The level of population aging (with the expansion of the group aged over 80 being

particularly intense) varies from one country to another: it is more intense in all

industrialized or post-industrialized countries. Larger degree of current aging can be

found in Southern Europe, former communist countries and German- speaking ones.

Population aging jeopardises health care systems, public pensions systems, and public

finances, housing markets and economic growth in general.