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Unit 1
Modal verbs 1: might, could, may and can
1 might, could and may can be used to express present, future and past possibility: Try the shop on the corner – they might have what you’re looking for. Economists warn that house prices could rise even further next year. She may not have received your letter yet.
The addition of well after the modal verb expresses more probability. Take an umbrella – it may/could/might well rain later on.
2 might and could can be used to express: t QBTUQPTTJCJMJUZXIJDIEJEOPUIBQQFO We could have won the game, but Joe missed a penalty. It’s a good thing I was wearing a crash helmet. I might have been seriously injured. t annoyance You could at least say you’re sorry! He might have told me he was going to be late!
3 might and may can be used to: t FYQSFTTDPODFTTJPO He might have failed his degree, but he’s earning much more than me. (= Although he failed his degree, he’s earning much more than me.) She may be very famous, but that doesn’t give her the right to behave like that in public. t TVHHFTUXIBUPOFTIPVMEEPXIFOUIFSFJTOPCFUUFS alternative I might as well go shopping with my parents – I’ve got nothing else to do. You’ll find out the truth sooner or later, so I may as well tell you now what happened.
4 can and may (more formal) can be used to: t HJWFPSSFGVTFQFSNJTTJPO You may/can borrow up to three DVDs at any one time from the library. You can’t/may not go until you have finished. t NBLFPGGFST May I be of assistance? Can I carry that for you?
5 can and could can be used to: t NBLFSFRVFTUT Can/Could you give me a hand, please? t BTLGPSQFSNJTTJPO Can/Could I open the window? The more formal may can also be used. May I ask a personal question?
6 can and could , in the negative form, can be used to express certainty: She can’t be more than about 20 years old. It couldn’t have been a bear that we saw – it was far too small.
7 can can be used to express: t UIFPSFUJDBMQPTTJCJMJUZ The new concert hall can seat over 3000 people. t BCJMJUZPSJOBCJMJUZ I can understand some Italian, but I can’t speak it very well. t DSJUJDJTN She can say some very hurtful things sometimes.
8 could can be used to express: t BCJMJUZPSJOBCJMJUZJOUIFQBTU My late grandfather could play the banjo, but he couldn’t sing very well.
When we talk about ability to do something on one occasion in the past, could is not possible. Instead, was/ were able to, managed to or succeeded in have to be used. I managed to speak to Frank last night, but I couldn’t persuade him to come to the opera with us. t permission or prohibition in the past When I was at school the boys couldn’t wear earrings, but the girls could.
When we talk about permission to do something on one occasion in the past, be allowed to has to be used. I was allowed to leave work early yesterday to go and meet my husband at the airport.
Unit 2
Talking about the past
1 Past simple The past simple can be used to refer to: t DPNQMFUFEBDUJPOT FWFOUTPSTJUVBUJPOTXIJDIIBQQFOFE at a specific time or over a specific period of time in the past I sold my car about three months ago. When we lived in York, my father ran a small bakery. t habitual actions or behaviour in the past Did you bite your nails when you were a child? When I was a teenager, my mum got really angry if I didn’t tidy my bedroom. Used to + infinitive can also be used to refer to past situations and habitual actions. Would + infinitive can be used to refer to past habitual actions, but not situations. Every summer we used to/would go to Scotland to visit my grandmother. I used to (not would) have a parrot, but he escaped.
2 Past continuous The past continuous can be used to refer to: t TJUVBUJPOTPSBDUJPOTJOQSPHSFTTBUBQBSUJDVMBSNPNFOU in the past This time last year I was taking the Advanced exam. t a past situation or action which was in progress when another action occurred We were still having breakfast when Mark and Marian called round. t past actions or situations occurring at the same time She was working hard to earn some extra money and he was spending it all on new gadgets. t repeated past actions, which the speaker finds annoying She was always complaining about something.
3 Present perfect The present perfect links past events and situations with the present.
A The present perfect simple can be used: t UPUBMLBCPVUSFDFOUQBTUFWFOUTXIJDIIBWFTPNF relevance to the present They can’t afford to go on holiday – they ’ve just bought a new car. t UPEFTDSJCFTJUVBUJPOTXIJDITUBSUFEJOUIFQBTUBOE continue to the present We ’ve had these saucepans since we got married 43 years ago. t to talk about events which occurred at some time between the past and present. The exact time they occurred is either unknown or unimportant. I ’ve already seen United play three times this season.
t after the expression this/that/it is the first/second/third, etc time … This is the fourth time I ’ve seen United play this season. t after the expression it’s (two/three, etc) years/a long time since …The past simple is also possible. It’s years since I ’ve had /I had bacon for breakfast. t with another present perfect to describe two states or actions which have existed or occurred together. We ’ve been burgled twice since we’ ve lived here.
B The present perfect continuous is used with verbs which describe actions (e.g. give, play, take), but not with verbs which describe states (e.g. be, know, like). It can be used to: t FNQIBTJ[FUIFEVSBUJPOPGBTJUVBUJPOPSBDUJWJUZ He ’s been working on his first novel for over ten years. t suggest that a situation or activity is temporary My kitchen’s being redecorated so I ’ve been eating at my mum’s. t suggest that a situation or activity is incomplete I ’ve been reading that book you lent me – I think I know how it’s going to end. t focus on the repetition of a situation or activity. The number of times it is repeated can only be included with the simple, not the continuous form. Someone ’s been phoning you. She ’s phoned about six or seven times this morning.
C Both simple and continuous forms of the present perfect can be used to talk about the present effects of a past event. I’m exhausted! I ’ve been cleaning the house all morning. (an activity) Sally can’t drive for a while; she ’s broken her leg. (a single action)
4 Past perfect A The past perfect simple can be used: t UPTIPXUIBUBQBTUFWFOUPSTJUVBUJPOPDDVSSFECFGPSF another past event or situation As soon as the film started, I realized I had seen it before. t to describe situations which started in the past and continued to a later point in the past They had known each other for several years before they got married. t after that/it was the first/second/third, etc time … We went to Switzerland last summer; it was only the second time we ’d been abroad. t after it was (two/three, etc) years/a long time since … It was a long time since she had last seen her old school friend. t BGUFSDFSUBJOUJNFMJOLFST FHafter, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until It was dark by the time I had finished repairing the roof. The past simple can be used if the order of events is clear: I had a relaxing bath after I got home from work last night. or if the second event occurred as a result of the first. When the music started , everyone got up to dance.
Participle clauses can sometimes be used in place of clauses with when or after and the past perfect. Having eaten his sandwich, he put his coat on and left. (= After he had eaten his sandwich, he put his coat on and left.) For more information on participle clauses, see Unit 10 on page 222.
B The past perfect continuous can be used in similar ways to the present perfect continuous, but instead of linking past events and situations with the present, it links them with another point in the past. It is not used with stative verbs (e.g. be, know, like). I ’d been waiting for over an hour when she finally arrived. (duration) She found out that her son had been using her credit card to buy computer games. (repetition)
You only had to smell his breath to know he ’d been smoking. (effects of a past event) 5 Unfulfilled past events The following structures can be used to talk about events which were intended to take place, but which did not happen.
I was going to send you an email, but I had a few problems with my computer. I was about to call the doctor, but then the pain suddenly disappeared. She had been/was thinking of going to Iceland, but changed her mind and went to Norway, instead. The meeting, which was to have taken place last weekend, was unexpectedly cancelled.
6 Expressing preferences about the past The following structures can be used to express how we would like the past to have been different. t would like/love/prefer to + perfect infinitive, or would have liked/loved/preferred to + infinitive or perfect infinitive We would like to have stayed longer, but we had to catch the train. She would have loved to tell/to have told him what she thought of him.
If the subject of would like, etc is not the same as the subject of the verb which follows, an appropriate noun or object pronoun is inserted before the infinitive. She would have preferred him to say it to her face, rather than put it in a letter. t XPVMESBUIFSTPPOFS+ perfect infinitive We stayed in a hotel, but I ’d sooner have slept in a tent. If the subject of would rather/sooner is not the same as the subject of the verb which follows, the past perfect is used. Would you rather I hadn’t said anything about it to Matt?
For information on using wish/if only and conditional sentences to describe imaginary situations in the past, see section A in Unit 3 below.
Unit 3
Hypothetical situations and conditionals
Past tenses can be used to talk about unlikely, imaginary or impossible situations in the present, past or future.
A Past situations t wish/if only + past perfect can be used to express wishes, regrets and criticisms about the past I wish I hadn’t eaten my dinner so quickly. I’ve got indigestion now. If only you had listened to my advice. You wouldn’t be in this mess. t TIPVME+ perfect infinitive can also be used to express regrets and criticisms about the past We should have brought an umbrella. We’re going to get soaking wet now. You shouldn’t have spoken to him like that. I’m not surprised he’s upset. t Third conditional sentences (if + past perfect, would/ might/could + perfect infinitive) can be used to speculate about how things might have been different in the past If you had been paying attention, you might have understood what I was saying. (= You weren’t paying attention, so you didn’t understand.) If it hadn’t been for that traffic jam on the motorway, we would have got here on time. (= Because of the traffic jam we arrived late.)
Gerunds and infinitives
A The infinitive with to is used:
to express purp ose I went out to get some fresh air. after some adjectives It's not easy to find work these days. after the ve rb to be, to give orders or to express an arrangement You 're to stay here until I get back. The President is to visit Poland next month. after would hate!likellovelprefer, with or without an obj ect Would you like me to do it now? after the following verbs agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand, deserve, expect, help, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, offe1; prepare, pretend, refuse, seem, threaten
If you need any help, don't hesitate to contact me. after t he following verbs + object advise, a llow, ask, challenge, enable, encourage, expect, force, get, help, intend, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, teach, tell, urge, warn
My family encouraged me to go to university.
If advise an d recommend are used without an object, the gerund is used. I recommended her to apply to King's Co llege. I recommended applying to King's College.
- after the following noun s ability, attempt, capacity, chance, decision, desire, determination, effort, failure, intention, need, opportunity, permission, plan, proposal, refusal, right, tendency, way, wi llingness It was the director's refusal to accept his proposals that led to his decision to resign.
B The bare infin iti ve (wit ho u t to) is used: after modal verbs I shouldn't eat this really, but I can't resist it.
- after the following verbs had better, help, let, make, wou ld rather/sooner We'd better go home now - it's very late. Can you help me tidy up, please?
In the passive, make is follo wed by the infinitive wi th to. We were made to do all the dirty jobs.
C The gerund is used:
- as the subj ect, obj ect or comp le ment of a clause or sentence Playing go lf helps me relax, but I find watching it on television rather boring. after prepositions We thou ght about going to France this yeai'. after the foll owing expressions have difficulty/problems, th ere's no/little point, it 's no good/use, it's (not) wo rth
It's no use asking him - he won't know the answer.
after the foll owing verbs admit, adore, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avo id, can't he lp, can't stand, cons ider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, feel like, give up, imagine, involve, keep, (don't) mind, miss, postpone, practise, prevent, propose, put off, recommend, resent, resist, ri sk, suggest
I resent having to do all th e housework myself after the fo ll owing verbs + the prepo si tion to adapt/adjust to, admit to, confess to, ge t round to, ge t used to, look forwad to, object to
Sh e confessed to being surprised by her success.
Where the subjects of th e ma in verb and the gerun d are di fferent, an objec t (pronoun) or poss essive adjective is us ed.
I cou ldn 't imagine him eating something like this. We appreciate your coming to tell us so qu ick ly.
D Th e foll ow ing verbs can be followed by the gerun d or th e infiniti ve with to w ith no c hange in meaning: begin, can't beai; continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefe1; start
She suddenly started singing/to sing. The infi niti ve is com m on for specific si tuat ion s. Co mp are the following sentences: I hate to say this, but your breath smells. I hate getting up early eve1y morning.
E The foll owing verbs can be follo wed by the geru nd or the infinitive with to, but w ith a c han ge in meaning: forget, mean, regret, remember, stop, t1y The in finitive is us ed with re m em be1; forget, regret and stop when the ac t of remembering, etc com es first. The gerund is u se d wh en it comes seco nd. I must remember to post this lette1' later. I distinctly remember posting the letter yesterday. Her car broke down and no one stopped to help her. I've stopped eating chocolate. When regret is followed by the infinitive with to, it is n orma lly u sed with verbs s uch as say, te ll and inform. This use is forma l. We regret to inform you that y our application has been unsuccessfu l.
- try + infinitive with to means attemp t. try + geru nd means experiment with. Please be quiet - I'm trying to sleep. If you can't s leep, try using earplugs.
- mean + infinitive with to means intend. mean + gerund means involve. I've been meaning to write to you for ages. Changing jobs also meant changing house.
Unit 5
Reference
1 This, that, these and those can be us ed to refer b ac k to
previously stated people, thin gs, events or ideas. This and these are more commo n than that and those.
This a nd that can be used:
- before nouns or on their own ... and he left school at 16. This (decision) did not please his parents. He hated school. That's why he left at 16.
These and those are more commo nly used before nouns.
- ... the mobile phon e and the compute 1 '. These two inventions have revolutionized communications ... ... during th e 1930s. In those days, of course, people didn't have comp ute rs. You've got so many toys. Let's get rid of those th at you don't play with anymore.
2 A numbe r of other words ca n be us ed to substitute an d avo id repet i tion of pre vious ly used words and phrases.
- do/does/did to replace a verb Paul didn'twant to go, but I did .( = I wanted to go .)
- do so can also be used to rep l ace a verb + obj ect He told her to lo ck th e do01; but she had already done so. so/nor/neithe r+ aux ili ary verb + s ubject She likes dogs and so do I. (=I like dogs , too.) I've never b ee n to Paris and nor/neither has he. ( = He hasn't been to Paris e ith er.)
- so/not to replace a that-clause after expect, hop e, seem, suppose, th in k 'Is he coming?' 'I think so.' (= I think th at he's com in g.) 'Do you think it'll rain?' 'I hope not.'( = I hop e that it won't rain.)
Note that I don't think so is more common than !think not.
- if not/so to replace whole clauses Are you free on Friday? If so, do you fancy going to the cinema? If not, how about next week?
- one/ones to replace countable nouns What sort of ice cream would you like? A plain one or one with chocolate sauce on? Those red apples are much tastier than these green ones.
Ellipsis
Ellipsis involves omitting words to avoid repet it ion.
1 It is common to omit words after and and but.
I live and (I) work in Madrid. John was impressed, but I wasn't (impressed). We play tennis on Saturdays and (we} sometimes (play) on Sundays, too.
2 The main verb can be omitted after an auxiliary verb. I'd do it myself if I could. ( = if I could do it myself) She said she would phone, but s he hasn't. He said he saw her there, but he can't have.
Adverbs can be placed before the auxi liary. 'Can you turn the heating on ?' 'I already have.' be cannot be omitted after a modal verb. 'Is the shop open yet?' 'It might be.' been can be omitted in a perfect passive, except after a m odal verb. 'Has she been promoted?' 'Yes, she has.' He wasn't sent to prison, but he should have been.
3 Instead of repeating a full infinitive expression we can simply u se to. I don't eat much cheese now, but I used to.
Relative clauses
A Defining relative clauses These contain essential information which identifies the person or thing being talked about. Who and which can be replaced by that, an d the relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the o bj ect of the verb in the relative clause. No commas are required at the be ginn in g or end of the relative clause.
The woman who/that used to babysit for us has just got married. It's not the kind of novel which/that appeals to me. I know a boy whose father is a professional diver. Just a quick note to thank you for the fl.ower s (which / that) you sent me.
When and why can also be omitted in defining relative clauses. I'll never forget the day (when) Geoff resigned. The rea son (why) he left is sti ll uncleai'.
Where cannot be omitted. Compare the following: That's the shop where we bought our bed. That's the shop (which/that) we bought our bed in.
In more form al English, prepositions can be placed be for e the relat ive pronouns whom and which (but not that). They returned to the shop in which the bed had been purchased.
B Non-defining relative clauses
These contain non-essential information: we can identify which person or thing is bein g talked about without the information in the relative claus e. That cannot be u se d and the relative pronoun cannot be omitted. Commas are required at the be ginnin g and the end of th e relative claus e (except when the end of the r elative clause is also the end of th e sentence).
Our former babysitter, who got married last yeai; has just had her first child. His first novel, which was large ly autobiographical, became an overnight su ccess. Alan Smith, whose father is a professional dive1; is the only boy in our class who can't swim.
Which is us ed in non-defining relative clauses to refer to a whole clause. He works 12 hours a day, which must be very tiring.
What is not used to refer to a who le clause. It means 'the thing that'.
Le,t me know what you decide to do.
What I need right now is a cup of tea. (see Unit 9)
Unit 6
Passives
A Form
The passive is formed with the appropriate tense or form of the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb:
We should have been told earlier. A full investigation is currently being carried out. The passive cannot be used with intransitive verbs. The rabbit was disappeared by the magician. X
B Use
The passive is used to focus attention on the action or the person or thing affected by th e action, rather than on the agent, the person or thing that pe rforms the action.
Smith was jailed for three years.
If the agent is mentioned, the preposition by is used:
The President was criticized by members of his own party.
T he choice betwe en active and passive is often influenced by context. 'Given' or previously mentioned information usually comes at th e beginning of a clause or sentence and new information towards the end. In the following example, The letter is 'given' inform ation: it is referred to in the previous sentence (Albert E inste in wrote to President franklin Roo sevelt). Since it is not the agent of the verb · 'compose', the passive form is necessarily used.
In 1939 Albert Einstein wmte to President Franklin Roosevelt, urging the United States to develop an atomic bomb. The letter was composed by the Hungarian-born physicist and biophysicist Leo Szilard, a former colleague of Ein stein, who felt it would have more infl.uence if it were signed by his eminent friend.
There is also a tend e ncy to pl ace lon g phrases towards th e e nd of the clause. If, as in the above example, the agent is a long phrase (the Hungarian-born physicist, etc) this appears at the en d of the clause and the passive form is necessarily u se d. Also: The meeting was attended by representatives of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council.
C Not mentioning the agent The agent is not usually me ntion ed in passiv e constructions: if the agent is unknown or unimportant Lunch will be se rved from one o'clock in the canteen.
- if it is obvious who th e agent is The musician was arrested at his home on Friday.
- if the agent is 'people in genera l' The passive is not used with intransitive verbs. to avoid the us e of 'you ' in official notices
Unsold tickets must be returned by 16th August.
all, anothe1; any, both, each, eith er, enough, every, (a) few, fewe1; less, a lot of, (a) little, many, more, most, much, neithe1; no , one, oth e1; several, some, this, that, these, those
2 D eterm iners can be us ed:
- b efore singular countable nouns e. g. another, a ny, each, ei th e1; eve1y, neithe1; no , one, some, this, that Can I have another sa ndwich, p lease?
Either and neithe1' a re used to talk ab out two t hin gs. Each is u se d to t al k about two or mo re things; eve1y is only us ed to ta lk about mo re than two. All four determiners are foll owed by a singular verb.
It's an exciting final, which neither player deserves to lo se.
Each/Every song soun ds the same.
- b efore plural nouns e.g. all, any, both, enough, (a) few, fewer, a lot of, many, more, most, no, other, several, some, these, th ose
We haven't got enough eggs to mak e an omelette.
Few means 'no t many' or 'not as many as des ired or expected'. Very can b e use d before few to emp hasi ze it. There are very few apples left. We need to buy some. A few means ' some' or 'more than expected'. We've still got a few eggs - enough to make an omelette.
Quite can be u sed with a few to mean a fairly large numbe1'. We've got quite a few kiwis - w e need to eat them before they go rotten.
- b efore uncountable nouns e.g. all, any, enough, less, (a) little, a lot o f, more, m ost, much, no, some, this, that
He's nearly bald- he's got very little hair left.
Some can be used to mean 'app rox imately' or 'a large amount': I was waiting for some two hours - that's quite some time. 3 Sometimes more than one determiner can be us ed b efore a noun. eve1y few/five da ys no other town/books these few examp les
B Pronouns
eve1y other week another few drinks many more/other ways
Most of the det erminers above can also be used as pronouns. Pronouns are used instead of nouns. Eve1y, no a nd other cannot be us ed as pronoun s: each is us ed in stead of eve1y, no ne in s tead of no, and others in stead of oth e1'. A lot of becom es a lot as a pronou n.
Bad reviews are better t han no revi ew s. (Determiner) Bad reviews are better than none. (Pronoun)
2 Pronouns can be used :
- on their own 'Would you like sugar on it?' 'J ust a little .' 'Do you prefer tea or coffee?' 'I don 't like either. '
On e another and each other are used as objects of verbs. Bob and Ali ce loved one another/each other. (Bob l oved Alice and Alice loved Bob .)
- with of + pronoun They've got two boys - both of them are blond.
- with of+ th e, this, that, these, those, my, your, etc + noun Try some of my win e. Neither of these books is mine.
of is opt ion al with all an d both before a noun All (of) my clothes/Both ( of) my socks ai'e w et.
- after a determi ner There are no others. I've got a few more. Look at this one. Ti y each on e. Would you like any more?
All and both can also be u se d
- after a no un or pronoun My parents both work at home. Jazz, pop, ro ck ... I listen to them all.
- after a mod al or aux ili ary verb We've alVboth seen that film.
Modal verbs 2: will, shall and would
1 Will a nd would can be u se d to express:
- p resen t an d past h ab its. This u se is not possible with stative verbs (e.g. b e, know, like). She will often fall as le ep in front of the te levision. He would always read us a sto1y at bedti me.
- typical annoyin g behaviour. In speech, w ill an d wou ld are stressed. He will ke ep interrupting when I'm talking. I would get a cold now, ju st as th e holiday is starting!
- willingn es s to do something. This includ es request s. If you 71/would follow me, Ms Ray will see you now. Will/Would you open the door a li tt le , please? I wi sh he would try a bit harder. r efusa l to do something in the present and the past. Mummy! Eva won't let me play with her dolls! I asked him, but he wouldn't tell me.
2 Will can al so be us ed to express ass umption s ab o ut
the present. 'There's someone at the do01'.' 'That7l be Lydia.'
3 Shall ca n be used :
to m ake a r equ est for advice or in s tructions I'm very worried about Peter. What shall we do? What tim e shall we meet?
- to make a n offer or a sugges ti on Shall I help you cany that? Shall we go?
Talking about the future
1 wi ll an d going to can be used to make predictions.
I don't think I'll be/ I'm going to be we ll enough to go to work tomonow.
2 going to also describ es intentions or pl ans.
I'm going to work rea lly hard this yeai'. 3 The present cont in uo us describes fixed arrangements. I'm having lunch with Brian tomorrow. 4 Modal verbs expre ss different degrees of uncertainty about the future. Dave should be here soon. (Probabi lity) We might have a party next week. (Possibility) may/might/could well + infinitive w ith out to expresses probability. We might well be moving in the nex t few weeks. 5 Verbs of thinking , such as believ e, d ou bt, expect and th ink, are foll owed by will when referrin g to the future. Hope can al so be foll owed by a present tense. I expect I'll lose again - I always do. I hope they (w ill) keep in touch with us. 6 be (un) likely to + infinitive expresses probabi li ty. The si tu at ion is likely to get wors e.
7 be bound to +infinitive expresses certain t y.
It's a ridiculous plan and it's bound to fail. 8 be (just) about to+ infinitive/be on the point of+ geru nd can be used to talk about the imm ediate futur e. I'll call you back - I'm just about to go into a meeting.
9 be due to + infiniti ve refe rs to sch edul ed times.
The new supermarket is due to open in. April. The pres e nt s impl e a lso refers to sc h edu led times. Hurry up! The bu s leaves in ten min utes. be +to + infinit i ve can be u sed to ta lk about arran ge ments. Next year's tournament is to be held in Frankfurt. (See a lso section A of Ge runds and infiniti ves in Unit 4 on pa ge 218.)
12 The future continuous is used:
- to talk about actions or events which will be in progress at a certain time in the future. Don't call after eight - I'll be watching the match then.
- to talk about a future action that will happ en because it is regular or decided. It can be used to ask about someone's plans politely. I'll be seeing Joe later - I'll give this to him then. Will you be coming out with us tomorrow night?
13 The future perfect is used to talk about actions and events which will be completed by, or which co n tinue until, a certain time in the future. I think we'll have finished the job by Friday. Next month I'll have been working here fo r ten years.
Unit 9
Creating emphasis
If we want to give particular importance to a person, a th ing or a clause in a sentence, we can use these structures: It is/was ... that ... or What ... is/ was ...
It was Norman's incredible sense of humour that first attracted me to him. What I find strange is (the fact) that he never talks about his father.
In each case, the underlined part of the sentence is being emp h as ized.
1 It is/w as ... that ... can be used :
- w ith (only) when, while or not unti l to emphasize a (period of) time It was while he was in Spain that Lennon wrote Strawberry Fie l ds Foreve r. It wasn't until he took off his h at that I recognized him.
- with because to emphasize reasons Perhaps it's because I'm a chef that people never invite me to their dinner parties. to emp h asize pre positional p hra ses It was on the radio that I first heard the news.
- to emphasize a thing or a person 'who' can be used in plac e of 'that' if we are referring to a person. It was Gary who broke the chair. It's his left arm that's broken, not his right one.
Modal verbs ca n be used ins tea d of is and was. It can 't be my mobile phone that's ringing- it's switched off It might have been the fish that made m e feel i ll.
2 Wh at ... is/was ... ca n be used to emphasi ze :
a noun What I most wanted to see in The Louvre was the Mon a Lisa. an act ion or seri es of actions What you do then is (to) add the flou r and stir it ' in thoroughly. What happened was (that) I left my wa llet in the cafe and had to go ba ck.
All can be us ed instead of What to mean 'the only thing that'.
All he (ever) did during the school holiday was (to) play on
his compu te1: All I really want is a little hous e in the count1yside.
Unit 10
Participle clauses
Particip le clauses are clauses which be g in with a present or past pa rticipl e. Th ey h elp to exp re ss id e as concisely, and a dd variety to written En glish.
1 Particip le claus es can be used: instead of rela ti ve cl auses
I recognize that man standing over there. ( = who is standing) Three of the people injured in the crash are still in hospita l. (=who were injured)
- instead of ce rtain conjunctions because/ so Not wishing to offend my ho st, I ate eve1ything on my plate.
as/while Looking out of the window last night, I saw a shooting star.
w hen/once/after Having worked out how much you can afford to pay for yo ur co111pute1; you need to decide on the model.
and He fell off the ladder, breaking a leg and three ribs. if Cooked in their skins, potatoes retain most of their nut rients.
- afte r the obj ect s of the following verbs : see, hear, watch, notice, feel and find
Police found him lying unconscio us on the kitch en flo01 : I could hear something moving in the bushes.
2 Note that:
- Stative verbs (e.g. be, want, know) are not normally used in continuous tenses, bu t the -ing form can be used in participle clauses. I am being a ve1y shy person, so I never enjoy going to parties. )< Being a ve1y shy person, I never enjoy going
to parties. t/
- The subject of a participle clause is usuall y the s ame as the subjecfof t he main clause. Working as a waitress, I have all my meals in the restaurant. However, it is p ossib le to hav e a participle clause w ith a different subject. Ins t ea d of: Having been damaged by vandals, Helen had to wa lk rather than go on her bicycle. )< we can say : Her bicycle having been damaged by vandals, Helen had
to walk. II'
- with is someti mes us ed to introduce a different subject. With both my parents working all day, I have to cook my own lunch.
Unit 11
Inversion
Certa in adverbs and a dverbial phrases with a negat ive or restri ct i ve meaning can be placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. In this case , the position of the subj ect and verb is reversed, as in question forms. This occurs mainly in written English or more forma l speech.
1 Where the ma in verb is used with an auxi li ary verb, th e
position of the su bj ect a nd au xili ary verb is reversed. I will never lend money to Richard again. (Normal word o rder ) Never again will I lend money to Richard. (Inversion)
Where no auxiliary verb is present, either do, does or did is ins e rted. Steve hardly ever turned up on time for his lectures. Hardly ever did Steve turn up on tim e for his lectures.
2 Inversion is u sed : after certain phrases wi th not Not since I wa s little have I enjoyed my self so much. Not until we got to my parents' hou se did we rea lize we'd
left all th e Christma s presents at home.
Not only did he le ave dirty footprints all over our carpet, but he also sat on my glasses.
2 needn't and don't need to Usually, there is no difference in meaning between needn't+ infinitive and don't n ee d to + infinitive: they bo th indic a te a lack of obligation to do something. However, needn't usual ly refers to imm ediate necessity a nd tends to be used to give permission not to do something; the authority comes from the speaker. You needn't come tomon'ow if you don't want to. don't need to tends to indicate general necessity; the authority doe s not come from the speaker. don't have to can be used in t he same way. You don't n eed to/ don't have to spend a fortu ne to keep fit. 3 needn't have done and didn't need to do needn't have+ past participle is used to talk about an action which was performed but which was unnecessary. You n eedn't have bought those batteries - we've got plenty in the drawer. did n't need to+ infinitive is us ed to talk about an action which was unnecess ary. It usually indicates that the subject did not perform the action. I didn't need to spend very long on my homework last night
Unit 13
Comparisons
A The following structures and expressions can be used to talk a b out sim ilarities and differences. Comparing past w i th present Where once he wa s at the top of his profession, he now struggles to find work. We now depend on technology more than ever before.
2 The + comparative, the + comparative is used when one thing is the res ult of another. The more he laughed, the angrier she became. The easier I find a sub je ct, the less I enjoy it.
3 as+ auxiliary+ s ubj ect He lived to a ripe old age, as did his wife and children.
4 Like is used with nouns, pronouns or gerunds to make comparisons. She ran like the wind back to he r flat. Getting him to talk is like getting blood out of a ston e. As is used wi th no u ns to describe someone or something's j ob, role or func t ion. She used her scaif as a bandage. He 's just started work as a postman. As is used wi th a verb phrase to make comparisons. Like is used informally, an d is considered incorrect by some. Sh e believes, as I do , that the President is wrong.
5 as + a dj ective/adverb +as can be used to show sim il arities. so can be used in stead of the first as in n eg at ive sentences. You 're as stubborn as your fath er. He's not so silly as he looks.
so can be used in th e fo ll owin g structures. He is known not so much for his singin g as/but for his charity work. If you can park close to the station, then so much the better.
Note the pos i tion of the article when so and such are used b efore noun s. Nothing gives so bad an impression as arriving late for your interview. It is n't qu ite such a cold winter as last yea r.
B The fo ll owin g words and ex pressions can be us ed to
modify comparisons. With comparatives a bit, a little, s lightly, much, (quite) a lot, fa r, significantly, con siderably, three tim es, etc, a grea t deal I'm feeling considerably better than I did yesterday.
2 With superlatives by far, easily, by a long way China is the company's largest market, by a long way. She is by far the most gifted musician in the band.
3 Wi th as ... as ... not quite, (not) nearly, almost, just, half, twice, three times, e tc, nothing like, nowhere near She earns twice as much as me and works half as many hours.
4 W ith the same ... as ... not qu ite, (not) nearly, almost, just, (very) much I have much the same opinion as my colleague.
Unit 14
Noun phrases
A Noun + noun is used when referring to:
- what thing s are made of a silver spoon a metal door a stone wall
- products from dead animals a lamb chop a leopard skin a chicken sandwich
- things that occur or appear regu la rly the evening shift a Saturday job daytime television
- duration. The first n oun is hyphenated an d in the singu lar. a five-hour delay a 20-minute speech a two - week holiday
- containers a water bottle a tea cup a biscuit tin No un + noun is a ls o used in a large number of commonly accepted co mpo und nouns. The two nouns descr ib e a sin gle ide a. a shop window a door handle a fire engine
B Noun+ 'si s'+ noun is used when referrin g to:
- po sses sion by a particular person or animal Sally's bicycle the dog's bone my children's toys An adjective ca n be p l aced betwe en the two nouns. my children's new toys
- s omething that is us ed by peop le or anima ls in general children's shoes women's clothes an ants' nest Adjectives are p l aced before the t wo nouns. a monthly women's magazine
- an action do ne to or by a particular person Mr Smith's resignation her husband's murder the Labour Party's defeat The ' no un of noun' str uctu re is preferred if the modi fy ing noun is a lon g phrase. the resignation of several members of the committee
- products from livin g animals goat's milk a hen's egg sheep's wool
- things that occurred at a specific time this evening's newspaper yesterday's storm last Saturday's programme
- parts of pe ople's and animals' bodies the boy's foo t a sheep's head the dog's tail
- duration, as an a lt ernative to the noun + noun s truc ture two years' absence a day's work an hour's delay
C Noun + preposition + noun is used:
- for containers a nd th ei r contents a bottle of water a cup of tea a tin of bis cui ts
- with words like top, bottom, side, edge, back, front, b eg inning, middle and end to i ndicate a part of something the top of the picture the back of the book the middle of the week There ar e a number of common exceptio ns, e.g. a mountain t op, the day's end, the water's edge
- to describe the characteristics of a person or thing a man of average build a place of great beauty a ring of little value
- w h ere no co mmonly accepted compound noun ex i sts
a book about parks the roof of the house
a woman on the radio
- in a l arge numbe r of co ll ocat i ons a source of inspiration an invasion of privacy
