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Asignatura: Historia Medieval de España, Profesor: Enrique Rodríguez-Picavea, Carrera: Historia, Universidad: UAM
Tipo: Apuntes
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Facultad de Filología Departamento de Lengua Española
SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………………… vii
INTRODUCCIÓN El perdón del gobernante en las sociedades islámicas pre-modernas
I. Planteamiento. Precedentes bibliográficos……………………………………………... II. Objetivos y metodología…………………………………………………………........ III. Fuentes……………………………………………………………………………….. IV. Aclaraciones formales y abreviaturas……………………………………………….. V. Agradecimientos………………………………………………………………………
PRIMERA PARTE El aman
CAPÍTULO 1. ¿Qué es el aman****? .............................................................................
I. Definición y tipología…………………………………………………………………. II. Salvoconductos para actividades diplomáticas y comerciales ( aman para un harbi ) y treguas con los no musulmanes de la dar al-harb… …………………………………….. III. El pacto de la dimma …………………………………………………………………
CAPÍTULO 2. El aman del rebelde ……………………………………………….
I. Doctrina sobre la lucha contra el rebelde musulmán: el caso andalusí.…………… II. El aman del rebelde: características generales, aspectos formales y de contenido……………………………………………………………………………... III. Características generales del proceso de concesión del aman de un rebelde……..
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CAPÍTULO 3. Tres casos de especial interés ……………………………………
I. La revuelta del Arrabal de Secunda en Córdoba…………………………………… II. La revuelta de ‘Umar b. Hafsun……………………………………………………. III. La sumisión de Zaragoza…………………………………………………………...
SEGUNDA PARTE El entorno del gobernante
CAPÍTULO 4. El gobernante frente a la familia ………………………………..
I. Querellas dinásticas y conspiraciones por parte de miembros de la familia reinante……………………………………………………………………………... II. Las esposas y concubinas………………………………………………………….. III. La familia omeya a través del perdón y el castigo………………………………….
CAPÍTULO 5. El perdón de las elites ……………………………………………
I. Los omeyas y quienes les servían………………………………………………….. II. Los gobernadores y los comandantes militares..…………………………………... III. Los visires…………………………………………………………………………. IV. Los secretarios……………………………………………………………………... V. Encargados de la ceca, tesoreros y otros……………………………………………
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APÉNDICE Episodios de las fuentes relativos al perdón………………………….CD Adjunto (182 p.)
Summary
In this Thesis, we have studied the practice of forgiveness carried out by the Andalusian Umayyad rulers (second/eighth-fifth/eleventh centuries). For that, we have used mainly chronistic sources where we have looked for the episodes relating to forgiveness transmitted by sources for this period. The analysis of this material, which is reflected in an extensive appendix consisting of two hundred episodes and attached to this thesis in an electronic format, has allowed us to figure out the use made of this practice during this period and how the clemency was one of the mechanisms used by the Umayyads to legitimize their government and to maintain control over the territory under their power. We have seen that, in addition to the coercive methods employed by these sovereigns in order to impose their authority, clemency played an important role in their government policies and thus is how it has been reflected by the chroniclers who have narrated the facts relating to this period. Up to now, the study of forgiveness in the Arab-Muslim context has been focused only from a religious point of view, that is, as the Quran, the Sunnah and theological treatises have dealt with it^1. However, the profound overlap between the religious and sociopolitical sphere regarding the application of forgiveness turn this virtue into an appropriate element for carrying out the study of the political and religious values of a society like the Andalusian during this period. While for other contexts, as the Christian one, we have numerous studies that consider these implications, it is not the case in Islamic context. The existence of an institution as the “Royal Pardon” in the Christian world, with a clear regulation and that has left abundant documentary material, may have been the cause of the appearance of numerous studies devoted to this practice, paying attention not only to the moral and religious aspects of forgiveness, but also its
(^1) See, for example, Allam, 1939, Elder, 1936 or Moucarry, 2004.
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Summary
political use by the Christian rulers^2. The lack, in the Islamic world, of a similar institution may partly explain that the importance of this practice from this multiple perspective were overlooked. In this thesis, we have attempted to fill this gap and open new perspectives for the study of Andalusian history, by putting forgiveness as the reference point.
In his study on forgiveness in Islam, Ch. Moucarry demonstrated that clemency is a fundamental value in Islam. God (Allah) constantly preaches that He is “The Most Forgiving, The Most Merciful” ( al-Rahman al-Rahim ) and forgiveness is a practice recommended by God and one of the most acclaimed virtues among believers. In the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, the references to the importance of forgiving to be forgiven on Judgment Day are numerous, with particular emphasis on the case of the ruler, as a representative of God’s authority on Earth and as guarantor of the order in the territory under his control.
A good ruler, as well as coercive methods, needed to launch non-violent methods to procure the acceptance of his subjects, so clemency and benevolence played an important role in this sense. It was essential, therefore, to strike a balance between coercion and forgiveness to ensure order and proper running of the Community. In the same way that God threatens to punish the believers on the Judgment Day, but at the same time He guarantees His forgiveness if they repent and return to obedience, rulers should make clear to their subjects that the Law must be obeyed if they do not want to be punished, but also that if they repent, they can reach their forgiveness and, by extension, God’s forgiveness in the Hereafter and the salvation of their soul.
As we have seen in our study, the Umayyads, just as they tried to convey an image of severe rulers when defending the Community and ensuring obedience to the Law, they also must be prepared to accept the repentance of their subjects and to use peaceful methods whenever possible. Following the line of the research opened by R. Mottahedeh and based on the analysis of political practices in the pre-modern Islamic societies through the study of different types of bonds that linked together the rulers, their “servers” and their subjects, we have tried to figure out which factors were behind the practice of forgiveness and punishment narrated in the chronicles and what kind of ties conditioned the benevolence of the rulers. As we shall see, the clemency of the
(^2) See, for example, Rodríguez Flórez, 1971, Burns, 1987 or Escalona, 2004.
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peace truces signed by Andalusian Muslim rulers with infidels sovereings, especially with Christians in northern Iberian Peninsula. In these territories, an intermediate state between dar al-harb and dar al-Islam was reached and it was known as dar al-sulh or dar al-‘ahd. According to that, although the inhabitants possess and live in the non- Muslim territory, they maintain a special tax relationship with Muslims. Thus, as has already been noted in several places, for the Umayyads, people in the north of the Iberian Peninsula were tax subjects, although they were reluctant to pay their taxes and the Muslim rulers were obliged to organize periodic algazúas to clear the debts with the loot. As M. de Epalza said, once the Peninsula was conquered, all of it was Muslim, though Christians live in certain places^3.
Next, we have focused on a type of aman that has received increased attention by scholars of Arab-Muslim world, as is the so-called pact of the dhimma (Section III). This is a protection agreement that Muslims - both rulers and the rest of the believers, with certain limitations – may give to an non-Muslim individual or community, from the so-called “people of the Book” ( ahl al-kitab ), that is mainly Christians and Jews, who are allowed to live for an unlimited period in a Muslim territory. They can practice their religion and maintain their customs - with some restrictions - in exchange for the recognition of the Muslim authority, respect to Islamic religion and Law and payment of a capitation tax, called jizya , and another tax over the land, called kharaj.
For the Andalusian case, we have numerous examples of native people who accepted this covenant when the Muslims conquered the Iberian Peninsula, in the early second/eighth century, being the pact of Tudmir the paradigmatic example of this kind of agreement. This protection covenant was handed over the inhabitants of Tudmir – a region that approximately corresponds to the current region of Murcia, with its center in the city of Orihuela -, by the son of general Musa b. Nusayr, called ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Musa, when his father went back to the East after being requested by the caliph of Damascus. This is a particularly important document in the history of al-Andalus conquest as it is the best document of aman of this kind that has been preserved, even in a copy included in the sources and whose authenticity is difficult to determine. However, we can get an idea of the features that these documents might be at the time.
Chapter 2. The aman of the rebel
(^3) De Epalza, 1984: 508-512.
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Summary
In this second chapter, after reviewing the Islamic doctrine on fighting Muslim rebels and the specific situation in the Andalusian context, we have analyzed the examples provided by the sources of this kind of aman that mean the most of the material we have for our study. He have called it “ aman of the rebel” and it is a protection agreement signed by an Muslim ruler with a Muslim person, who has rebelled against authority. Even though chronicles are plenty of mentions of these aman offerings and concessions, a study on this kind of aman and its characteristics has not been carried out up to now^4. We want to fill this gap with our study, with the establishment of the general characteristics of the process of negotiation and delivery of these covenants and the use made of them during this period by the rulers in their policies of control and subjugation of the territory under their power.
To this end, in the third section of this chapter we first analyzed the process of negotiating the aman (Section III. 1) by sending messengers or trustworthy men who transmitted to the rebels the sovereign’s wish to reach a peace agreement with them, in return for accepting his authority, ceasing violence and reactivating the delivery to the money from the the taxes. An exhaustive analysis of people used as messengers in each case has allowed us to conclude that, in addition to making use of truthworthy people, the sovereign sometimes sent as messengers individuals or groups of people who have something in common with the rebels – i.e. ethnicity or family bonds or the same geographical origin -. We have also seen that jurists were usually sent to these negotiations, as them, thanks to their knowledge of Islamic Law and their influential position in society, had enough authority to act as intercessors between the ruler and his subjects.
Another common practice associated with the concession of aman was the stay of submitted rebels in Cordova (Section III. 2), for a specified period, sometimes limited and sometimes for life. The rebels were welcomed in the capital city with honors and were given a property, gifts and even money for having a life with all the amenities. Thereafter, they became part of the army and participated in Cordovan military campaigns against insurgent territories or against the infidel enemy. The repentant rebels brought with them their families. This practice, in addition of being a way to ensure the control over the rebels and their attraction to the person of the ruler, also
(^4) We have some exceptions in articles about specific cases of aman agreements. See for example, Chalmeta, 1976a, Masham and Robinson, 2007 or Marsham, 2012.
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Summary
We have pointed out three categories of benefits: land concessions ( qati‘ or iqta‘ ) and title deeds ( sijill or tasjil ), tax exemptions and registration in the role of the army ( diwan al-jund ).
Land concessions and title deeds (Section III. 3.1) were part of the clauses in the aman agreements. In fact, the withdrawal of such land concessions caused the uprising of some individuals so the exigence to give them back was sometimes among the exigencies to restore peace. We have records of this kind of concessions from the first moment of the Muslim presence in al-Andalus. During the government of ‘Abd Allah, there were in al-Andalus many local leaders who ruled in an almost autonomous way from Cordova and refused to send their tributes to the capital city. Therefore, the emir, trying to regain the control over these territories or at least their former stability, gave lot of title deeds to these local leaders and registered those territories as land concessions. After that, during the government of ‘Abd al-Rahman III who, thanks to his intense military activity, managed to subdue almost the entire Andalusian territory, the renewing of title deeds that had been done from time to time, was more difficult and the former rebels, who had enjoyed great independence until that period, began to be appointed as governors with a full dependence to the central power and the obligation of timely payment of taxes.
Another condition required by rebels in aman negotiations were tax exemptions (Section III. 3. 2). Many rebellions were motivated by the tax burden to which they were subjected and people refused to pay their tributes. Toledo and Merida are two important centers of conflict where tax problems became more evident. The inhabitants of these cities were the more reluctant to pay taxes and whose demands suggest that they were required to pay certain fees they did not consider fair or they did not want to pay. That is what happened during the government of ‘Abd al-Rahman III in Toledo, where rebels conditioned their submission to the exemption from paying taxes they considered extracanonical, accepting only to pay the zakat imposed by tradition.
The third social and economic benefit many rebels enjoyed was the registration in the rol of the army ( diwan al-jund ) (Section 3.3). This rol at the time of its founding was reserved for the registration of Arab soldiers who had participated in the conquests, but gradually it gave way also to the mawali of the Arabs. In al-Andalus, along the entire Umayyad period, the running and the internal structure of the diwan al-jund were
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modified. We are witnesses of the incorporation of individuals belonging to ethnic groups that initially did not have access to this rol. The sources mention lot of cases of the enrollment of rebels in the diwan al-jund as a token of gratitude for their return to obedience. This registration involved economic benefits by assigning a salary or stipend ( rizq ) and other goods.
Linked to this registration, we have mentioned a practice that is presented in the sources as a kind of punishment inflicted by the rulers to some rebels. We are refering to the tamyiz (“separation”, “distinction”), which has been translated sometimes as “purging”, as did Y. Benhima (2009) in his study on this practice in Almohad period. This term has also been used to designate the review of the troops, as a synonym for ‘ard or i‘tirad. In this sense, we have examples that show how, during the submission of some rebels, was held a selection of soldiers for the cordovan army among the most trained soldiers of the enemy troops, saving the lives of those who were incorporated into army and executing the rest.
Finally, in this second chapter, we have devoted a section to the “material” evidences of aman letters through what Mª J. Viguera called “indirect documentary conservation” (“conservación documental indirecta”)^5 , that is by their inclusion in chronistic sources (Section IV). In addition to the shortage of these samples, the fact that they are not genuine documents but supposed copies of them makes difficult the study of these texts that have suffered the usual changes of historiographical writing.
Chapter 3. Three cases of special interest The last chapter of this first part is devoted to three cases of particular interest in the study of the process of aman concession. The first one is the revolt of the Suburb of Secunda in Cordova, during the government of al-Hakam I (Section I). This was a crucial event in the history of the Cordovan Umayyads since its political and social implications. This revolt – that counted with the participation of influential individuals as the jurists - threatened the emir in the capital city what largely explains the ferocity of the repression he carried out. It is remarkable the momet when al-Hakam I gave an aman to the rebels, after three days of repression, promising to save their lives on condition that they abandon their homes and leave the city. We are told that one of the emir’s trustworthy men recommended him this forgiveness as a sign of his kindness to (^5) Viguera, 2010a: 190.
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