As we said, we can distinguish five several types of cohesion: reference , substitution , ellipsis , conjunction and lexical cohesion. Reference, substitution and ellipsis are grammatical, while lexical cohesion is lexical. Conjunction is on the borderline of the grammatical and the lexical.

Reference

The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and Hasan’s model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions. In the textual sense, reference occurs when the reader/listener has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the same context.

References to the “shared world” outside a text are called exophoric references, while references to elements in the text are called endophoric references.

There are times when the reference is not explicit in the text itself, but it is obvious to those in a particular situation. This is called exophoric reference. For example:

For he's a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.

As outsiders, we don’t know who the he is, but, the people involved in the celebration are aware of the he that is being referred to, and therefore, can find texture in the sentences.

Another type of reference relation that is not strictly textual is co- reference , such as Mrs Thatcher → the Prime Minister → The Iron Lady → Maggie. You need some external information to realize that the terms refer to the same person. At the level of textual co- reference, there is a continuum of cohesive elements that can be used for referring back to an entity already mentioned.

This continuum goes from full repetition to pronominal reference, through synonym and general word. For example:

I saw a boy in the garden. The boy (repetition) was climbing a tree. The poor lad (synonym) was obviously not up to it. The idiot (general word) was going to fall if he (pronoun) didn’t take care.

Endophoric references can be divided into two areas: anaphoric and cataphoric :

Anaphoric refers to any reference that “points backwards” to previously mentioned information in text.
Cataphoric refers to any reference that “points forward” to information that will be presented later in the text.

Functionally speaking, there are three main types of cohesive references: personal, demonstrative, and comparative.:

Personal reference keeps track of function through the speech situation using noun pronouns like “he, him, she, her”, etc. and possessive determiners like “mine, yours, his, hers”, etc. In English the most common are personal pronouns (subject and object), determiners and possessives. Third person pronouns are often used to refer back, and sometimes forward, to a participant that has already been introduced or will be introduced into the discourse. For example: The prime minister has resigned. He announced his decision this morning.
Demonstrative reference keeps track of information through location using proximity references like “this, these, that, those, here, there, then, and the”. For example: This is not acceptable.
Comparative reference keeps track of identity and similarity through indirect references using adjectives like “same, equal, similar, different, else, better, more”, etc. and adverbs like “so, such, similarly, otherwise, so, more”, etc. For example: A similar view is not acceptable / We did the same.

Substitution and ellipsis

There are three general ways of substitution in a sentence: nominal, verbal, and clausal. In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are “one and ones”. In verbal substitution, the most common substitute is the verb “do” which is sometimes used in conjunction with “so” as in “do so”. For example:

Conjunctions can be classified according to four main categories: additive, adversative, causal and temporal.

Additive conjunctions act to coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and are signaled through “and, also, too, furthermore, additionally”, etc. Additive conjunctions may also

COHESION IN ENGLISH act to negate the presupposed item and are signaled by “nor, and...not, either, neither”, etc.

Adversative conjunctions act to indicate “contrary to expectation” and are signalled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather”, etc.
Causal conjunction expresses “result, reason and purpose” and is signalled by “so, then, for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect, etc.”.
The last most common conjunctive category is temporal and links by signaling sequence or time. Some sample temporal conjunctive signals are “then, next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point”, etc.

Deixis

Person deixis, place deixis and time deixis in English. In linguistics, deixis ( / 0 2 C 8 0 2 6 A0 2 6 Ada ks s/)[1]^ refers to words and phrases, such as “me” or “here”, that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information -- in this case, the identity of the speaker (“me”) and the speaker's location (“here”). Words or phrases that require contextual information to convey any meaning – for example, English pronouns – are deictic.