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INTRODUCING TRANSLATION STUDIES CAP.1: MAIN ISSUES OF TRANSLATION STUDIES THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION: Studies about translation were common also in classical antiquity and the first commentary appeared in the West.The word “translation” refers to the written one, while the oral translation is called interpreting or interpretation.The practice of translating is long established, but the discipline of translation studies is new.Translation was born in the ancient Rome and much of translation theory derives from the study of classical Greek, Latin and from the study of the Bible. But there are also the studies of Maria Tymoczko, that are based on other cultures and not on sacred texts.In Latin several verbs were used to refer to translational activities, because it was much practiced: vertere, convertere, transvertere, transferre. Cicero said that a translator should “convertere” texts as “orator” not as “interpres”. So Cicero translated not word for word, but sense for sense, because he wanted to keep the same ideas and the forms, he focused on the sense of the text and he preserved the general style and force of the Language.Today “translation” has several meanings( CONTEXT OF PRODUCTION, CONTEXT OF RECEPTION, SYNCRONY AND DIACRONY, CULTURAL REFERENCES, AUDIENCE) and ît refers to the phenomenon of translating, the translated text and the process, so translating.The process involves the SOURCE TEXT (ST) in the source language, and the TARGET TEXT (TT) inthe target Language. JAKOBSON [who belongs to the communicative stage of the translation studies — a period that starts from 1950- ) was a Russo-American structuralist, who discussed an linguistic meaning and equivalence. He distinguished 3 different types of translation. In the same period there's a debate about the difference between translation, adaption, version etc. and Sandra Halverson claims that translation is a prototype and it has basic core features.Maria Tymoczko discusses the concept of translation. She has a conceptual orientation, because she thinks that we can't always use a lexical fidelity to the original text. So the target text will show a big change of form compared to the source. Translation studies is an academic research area that has expanded in recent years.Many experts have talked about this new discipline called “Translation studies”: Holmes in ““The name and nature of translation studies”, Mary Snell-Hornby in “Translation Studies: An integrated approach”, Mona baker in “The Routledge Encyclopedia of translation” Translation studies have become more prominent because of 3 reasons: 1. The expansion in specialized translating and interpreting programs ( LITERARY TRANSLATION IN EUROPE WAS ESTABLISHED IN A SCHOOLIN WEST GERMANY IN 1978) 2. The proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation 3. The increase of international organizations 4. The increase of demand for genera and analytic instruments( database) EARLY HISTORY OF THE DISCIPLINE The practice of translation was fundamental for the early dissemination of cultural and religious texts. The first who discussed about translation were CICERO AND HORACE during the first century BCE, and ST.JEROME during the 4th century CE. St Jerome translated the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin and so he affected the later translations of the Scriptures.Later, in Europe, the translation of the Bible was the cause of ideological conflicts for years, especially during the Reformation in 16th century. There are 4 different phases of the translation studies: 
